THE  UNIVERSITY 


OF  ILLINOIS 
LIBRARY 

3  55.5  $ 

K  5  VY\ 


Return  this  book  on  or  before  the 
Latest  Date  stamped  below.  A 
charge  is  made  on  all  overdue 
books. 

U.  of  I.  Library 

— Q-T..  - 


MAY  /  9’38 


Jflfl  4,8  |j)4 
MfiR  2  5  1342 

flPR  -8  1342 


0  l 


m  2 


d 


APR  2 


81984 


MANUAL  OF  GAS 

IN 

ATTACK  AND  DEFENSE 

BY 

MAJOR  WILLIAM  KIRBY,  Inf.,  R.  C. 


Published  by 

EDWIN  N.  APPLETON 

Military  and  Naval  Books  Exclusively 
1  Broadway,  New  York  City 


COPYRIGHT  APPLIED  FOR 


^cS>(a,c$<5 

Table  of  Contents. 

PAGE. 

Chapter  I.  Schedule  for  Training  of  Enlisted  Men .  7 

Part  1.  Seven  Weeks’  Training .  7 

Part  2.  Six-Day  Course .  22 

Part  3.  Preliminary  Drills  With  Box  Respirators .  35 

Chapter  II.  Lecture  on  Gas  for  Officers .  41 

Chapter  III.  Defensive  Measures  Against  Gas  Attacks .  53 

Part  1.  Introduction . 55 

Part  2.  Organization  of  Gas  Defense .  59 

Part  3.  Protective  Appliances .  76 

Part  4.  Considerations  Affecting  Special  Arms .  84 

Chapter  IV.  Final  Drills  With  Box  Respirators  and  Helmets,  91 

Part  1.  Practice  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  H .  91 

Part  2.  Tube  Helmet  Drill .  93 

Chapter  V.  Inspection  of  Personal  Anti-Gas  Equipment....  97 

Chapter  VI.  Instructions  for  the  Use  of  Horse  Respirators.  .  101 

Chapter  VII.  Typical  Standing  Orders  for  Action  During  Gas 

Alert  and  Hostile  Gas  Attacks .  107 

Chapter  VIII.  Typical  Standing  Orders  for  Company  Gas 
N.  C.  O’s .  113 

Chapter  IX.  Instructions  for  Making  Wind  Observations  and 
Furnishing  Reports .  115 

Chapter  X.  Instructions  for  Taking  Gas  Samples  and  for 

Reporting  on  Hostile  Gas  Attacks .  119 


PAGE. 


Chapter  XI.  Gas  in  the  Offense.  .  .  . .  121 

Part  1.  Liquid  Fire .  121 

Part  2.  Smoke  Bombs .  122 

Part  3.  The  Tactical  Employment  of  Gas  in  Offense .  . .  123 

Part  4.  Method  of  Making  a  Gas,  Attack .  124 

Chapter  XII.  Pathology  of  Gas  Poisoning  and  its  Treatment,  127 

Part  1.  The  Mode  of  Action  of  Poisonous  Gases .  127 

Part  2.  The  Use  of  Gas  for  Offensive  Purposes .  130 

Part  3.  Cloud  Gas  of  1915,  1916,  1917 .  132 

Part  4.  Regulations  for  Treatment  of  Gassed  Cases....  144 

Part  5.  Index  to  Drugs  Which  Have  At  Various  Times 

Been  Used .  147 

Part  0.  Nitrous  Fumes,  Lachrvmators,  Hydrocyanic 

Acid,  Carbon  Monoxide .  149 


Index 


159 


Abbreviations 


Bde.  G.  0. 

Brigade  Gas  Officer. 

B.  G.  0. 

Battalion  Gas  Officer. 

Cl. 

Chlorine. 

CO. 

Carbon  Monoxide. 

C.O. 

Commanding  Officer. 

D.  A.  D.  0.  S. 

Deputy  Assistant  Director  of  Ordnance  Service. 

D.  G.  0. 

Divisional  Gas  Officer. 

D.  Mk.  III. 

“  D  ”  Class,  Mark  3  (sub-class)  Field  Telephone 

H.  Q. 

Headquarters. 

Hylio. 

«/ 

Sodium  Thiosulphate. 

N.  C.  0. 

Non-commissioned  Officer. 

0.  c. 

Officer  Commanding. 

P.  H. 

Phenol  Hexamine. 

S.  A.  A. 

Small  Arms  Ammunition. 

S.  B.  R. 

Small  Box  Respirator. 

CHAPTER  L 

Schedule  For  Training  Enlisted  Men. 

PART  I.— SEVEN  WEEKS’  TRAINING. 


Schedule  for  Training  of  Enlisted  Men. 

(For  guidance  of  battalion  anti-gas  officers.) 

Seven  weeks’  training.  Two  separate  hours  per  week, 

a.  Introduction.  Methods  of  attack.  Effects  of  gas.  Seri¬ 
ousness  of  this  form  of  warfare. 

b.  (Issue  of  respirators,  roughly  according  to  size.) 

Protection.  S.  B.  B.  Description.  Method  of  working. 

Inspection. 

c.  Inspection  of  S.  B.  It.  (Small  Box  Respirator). 

Visit  to  Lachrymatory.  Chamber  for  fitting. 

d.  Drills. 

Breathing.  Necessity  for  holding  breath. 

Exercises  in  holding  breath. 

Respirators. 

Adjustment  by  numbers. 

Clearing  masks. 

Smelling  for  gas. 

Removal  of  masks. 

e.  Drills  (continued). 

Exercises  in  holding  breath. 

Adjustment  by  numbers,  and  without. 

Cleaning  eyepieces. 

Speed  drill. 

f.  Drills  (continued). 

Exercises  in  holding  breath. 

Speed  drill  and  tests. 

Giving  and  passing  on  orders. 

March  and  short  double  time  march  in  respirators. 


8 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 


g.  Drills  (continued). 

Exercises  in  holding  breath  [  2  , 

Speed  in  adjustment  j  “  our' 

Lecture.  Gas  Alert.  (Wind  Dangerous.)  Measures  taken. 

i  hour. 

h.  Lecture.  Gas  shells.  Giving  alarms,  etc. 

i.  Drill  for  gas  shells. 

Holding  breath. 

Adjustment  from  slung  position. 

Gas  shell  demonstration. 

j.  Drill.  Revision  of  Inspection. 

Standard  tests. 

6  seconds. 

7  seconds. 

Bombing,  Physical  drill,  Bayonet  work,  etc.,  in  S.  B.  R’s. 

k.  Lecture. 

Duties  of  Company  Gas  N.  C.  0.  in  trench. 

First  Aid. 

Protected  dugouts. 

Practical  —  Revision  of  drill. 

l.  Practical  —  Clearing  trenches  and  dugouts. 

Use  of  fans  and  fires. 

m.  Visit  to  chlorine  chamber  at  gas  school  for: 

a.  Examination  in  standard  tests. 

b.  Passing  through  chlorine. 

n.  Gas  cloud  and  gas  shell  demonstration  at  gas  school. 


45  min. 
15  min. 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN.  9 

FIRST  LECTURE  ON  GAS. 

2.  ANTI-GAS  MEASURES. 

One  of  the  forms  of  attack  you  will  certainly  meet  with  when 
you  go  to  the  front,  is  the  attack  by  means  of  POISON"  GAS.  The 
first  use  of  gas  in  modern  warfare  was  in  an  attack  on  April  22, 
1915,  by  the  Germans  at  Ypres,  on  a  sector  where  the  French  and 
Canadian  forces  met.  The  surprise  was  complete  and  the  number 
of  casualties  enormous.  The  Allies  first  used  gas  on  September 
25tli,  1915,  at  Loos.  Since  then  the  new  weapon  has  been  con¬ 
stantly  used. 

Now,  attacks  by  gas  differ  from  all  other  forms  of  attack  in 
that  you  as  soldiers  are  unable  to  protect  yourselves  except  by 
the  use  of  the  respirator  issued  to  you.  You  cannot  take  cover 
from  gas  in  the  way  you  can  take  cover  from  bullets,  splinters, 
shrapnel,  etc.  GAS"  CAN  GET  AROUND  ALL  COVER  — YOU 
MUST  EVER  BE  ON  THE  WATCH. 

There  are  two  chief  methods  of  attack: 

(1)  Gas  cloud  or  mist  attack. 

(2)  Gas  shell  attack. 

The  Gas  Cloud  Attack. —  Gases  used  —  chiefly  Chlorine  and 
Phosgene  —  ASPHYXIANTS  —  they  act  through  the  lungs,  caus¬ 
ing  death  by  suffocation.  Used  because  they  are: 

(a)  Heavy  —  three  or  four  times  as  heavy  as  air. 

(b)  Easily  turned  into  liquids. 

(c)  Really  poisonous. 

These  gases  are  liquified  by  cold  and  pressure  and  placed  in 
metal  cylinders  weighing  over  1  cwt.  The  cylinders  are  taken  up 
to  the  front  line  trenches  and  placed  in  special  emplacements 
under  the  fire  step.  (See  sketch,  Par.  3.)  When  the  wind  is 
favorable  for  an  attack  (steady  —  at  5  to  8  m.  p.  h.)  the  gas  is 
liberated  by  turning  the  stop -cock  of  the  cylinders.  The  gas 
being  heavy,  it  is  carried  by  the  wind,  close  to  the  ground, 
towards  the  troops  to  be  attacked,  remaining  in  the  bottom  of 
the  trenches,  dugouts,  etc.,  for  several  days  if  it  is  not  cleared. 

A  definite  warning  is  therefore  given  to  the  troops  to  be 
attacked,  by  the  direction  of  the  wind  —  therefore  the  necessity 
for  wind  observation  in  the  trenches. 

C.F.  What  Steps  to  be  Taken  When  Wind  is  Dangerous. —  For 
a  cloud  attack  a  general  alarm  must  be  given,  which  will  rouse 
everyone  along  a  wide  front. 


10  SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 

(1)  Sentries  are  posted  in  every  bay  with  lateral  alarms  and 

orderlies  within  reach.  (Explain.) 

(2)  Strombcs  Horns.  (Explain.) 

If  proper  precautions  are  taken  a  surprise  attack  can  very 
seldom  be  made. 

.It 

When  attack  takes  place  it  can  be  recognized  by  (a)  Sound  of 
gas  escaping  from  cylinders,  (b)  Appearance  of  the  cloud, 
(c)  Smell  of  the  gas. 

Gas  Shell  Attack. —  All  areas  within  five  miles  of  the  front  line 
are  liable  to  be  attacked  by  gas  shells.  These  are  fired  from  heavy 
and  light  Howitzers  and  trench  mortars  or  Minenwerfers. 

The  greater  part  of  the  explosive  is  taken  away  and  replaced 
by  a  poisonous  liquid,  which  when  the  shell  bursts,  turns  into  a 
heavy  vapour  which  hangs  about  the  position  for  a  long  time. 
When  fired  alone,  the  shells  can  be  detected  (a)  by  the  “wobbly” 
noise  which  the  shell  makes  coming  through  the  air,  (b)  by  the 
small  noise  on  bursting,  and  (c)  by  the  appearance  of  a  whitish 
cloud  on  the  bursting  of  the  shell. 


Cylinders  placed  in  special  places  under  parapets. 

Do  not  connect  up  cylinders  until  attack  is  to  be  made. 

3,500  cylinders  were  used  on  a  mile  front.  Two  men  to  a 
cylinder. 

The  reason  they  are  connected  up  is  to  send  over  waves. 
Expanded  metal  work  is  placed  over  tanks,  and  then  sand  bags. 
This  will  not  interfere  with  trench  work. 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 


11 


Warning.— When  old  cylinder  is  disconnected,  push  red  tag 
over  same,  with  the  word  “empty”  on  it.  If  tags  are  not  avail¬ 
able,  use  marker  and  mark  empty,  on  outside  of  cylinder. 

Pressure:  170  kilograms  to  cubic  centimeter. 

Kilogram  equals  4|  lbs. 

Centimeter  equals  one-third  of  one  inch. 

4.  A  “  General  ”  alarm  is  not  wanted,  but  one  that  will  cover 
a  small  area  very  quickly.  (See  lecture  on  gas  shells.) 

Protection. —  The  S.  B.  Respirator  issued  to  you  is  an  efficient 
protection  against  all  poisonous  gases  used  by  the  enemy. 
A  perfect  familiarity  with  the  gas  mask  and  quick  application  are 
the  only  certain  means  of  defence.  The  necessity  of  holding  the 
breath  directly  a  gas  alarm  is  given,  cannot  be  overemphasized. 

One  might  mention  before  going  into  details  about  the  various 
gases  the  importance  of  knowing  your  gas  mask,  how  to  use  it 
and  to  have  all  the  confidence  in  the  world  in  it,  because  it  really 
is  your  only  life  saver  against  gas  attacks. 

In  the  month  of  January,  1917,  four  regiments  of  German 
Marines  were  brought  up  to  hold  a  certain  sector  of  the  British 
front.  They  had  no  experience  with  a  gas  mask,  until  they 
began  to  realize  that  the  British  found  this  out.  Hundreds  of 
Gas  Cylinders  were  brough  up  by  the  British,  and  placed  in  the 
usual  position,  under  the  fire  steps,  waiting  for  the  wind  to 
change  so  that  it  would  be  in  a  dangerous  position  for  the  Ger¬ 
mans.  In  the  meantime,  which  was  about  three  days,  the 
Germans  drilled  and  drilled  in  the  use  of  their  own  mask,  but  it 
was  too  late,  for  at  the  end  of  three  days  the  British  had  the 
wind  in  the  right  direction  and  let  forth  this  rolling  cloud  of 
poisonous  Chlorine  Gas,  which  went  over  on  the  Germans,  who 
had  very  little  training,  and  the  loss  of  life  amounted  to  nearly 
10,000  killed. 

The  above  only  goes  to  show  how  one  must  train  and  train,  in 
order  to  secure  safety  at  all  times  against  attack. 

SECOND  LECTURE. 

6.  ANTI-GAS  MEASURES. 

The  following  notes  to  be  expanded  by  the  battalion  Anti-Gas 
Officers. 

Gas  alert  (or  wind  dangerous)  will  be  ordered  when  the  wind 
is  .in  the  dangerous  quarter,  no  matter  what  the  strength  of  the 
wind. 


12 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN 


rtAOC  or 
mat  e  A'Ji 
7'f  r/0  h 


$  tf/'IH 


w*t  f  r* 

Ar*o  fit/Jr 

r*v 


Ait  •rp 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 


13 


The  order  “  Gas  Alert  ”  will  be  sent  out  to  all  units  by  Corps 
H.Q.  (or,  if  authority  has  been  so  delegated,  by  Divisional  H.Q.), 
but  Brigade  H.Q.  or  Battalion  Commanders  are  empowered  to 
order  a  “  Gas  Alert  ”  as  a  result  of  wind  observations  made  by 
Company  Gas  N.C.O’s.  forwarded  by  Company  Commanders. 
Such  action  will  be  reported  immediately  to  the  next  higher 
formation. 

“  Gas  Alert  ”  will  not  be  taken  off  without  the  authority  of 
the  Corps  Commander,  or  the  Divisional  Commander  to  whom 
authority  has  been  delegated. 

Wind  Reports. —  Every  three  hours  or  oftener  if  the  wind  is  in 
or  approaching  a  dangerous  quarter: 

For  direction  —  Wind  Vane  —  describe  type,  points  of  compass 
used. 

For  strength  —  Beaufort  flag  used  with  the  Beaufort  scale. 

Type  of  Wind  Report.  (Illustrate) 

BEHAVIOR  DURING  GAS  ALERT. 

Inspection  of  Box  Respirators. —  All  box  respirators  will  be  care¬ 
fully  inspected  and  the  inspection  repeated  only  daily  about  one 
hour  before  sunset. 

Alert  Position  for  Box  Respirators. —  All  ranks  will  carry  their 
box  respirators  in  the  alert  position.  Nothing  slung  across  the 
chest  must  interfere  with  the  immediate  use  of  the  respirator. 

Sentries,  etc. —  All  working  parties  will  have  a  sentry  posted  to 
give  instant  warning  of  a  gas  attack. 

A  sentry  will  be  posted  at  each  Strombos  Horn  or  other  alarm 
device  and  instructed  in  its  use.  ' 

A  sentry  will  be  posted  to  every  large  dugout  and  to  each 
group  of  small  dugouts. 

A  sentry  will  be  posted  to  each  Headquarters,  Signal  Office 
and  independent  body  of  men. 

Arrangements  will  be  made  by  the  officer  in  charge  of  the 
trench  for  warning  the  Artillery  Observation  Post  if  there  is  one 
in  the  trench. 

Commanders  of  units  in  billets  within  eight  miles  of  the  front 
line  trenches  will  organize  a  system  of  giving  the  alarm  and 
rousing  all  men  in  cellars  or  houses. 

At  night  sentries  must  have  at  least  two  men  within  reach  of 
them  so  that  the  alarm  can  be  spread  rapidly. 

Sleeping. —  When  a  gas  attack  is  probable,  men  in  front  line 
trenches  will  sleep  on  the  fire-step  instead  of  in  dug-outs. 


14 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 


Men  sleeping  in  rearward  lines  or  in  works  where  they  are 
allowed  to  take  off  their  equipment,  will  sleep  with  their  box 
respirators  on  the  person. 

Company  Gas  N.C.O’s. — •  Company  Gas  N.C.O’s.  will  report  to 
Company  H.Q.  in  readiness  to  assist  the  Company  Commander 
should  a  gas  attack  occur. 

7.  AMMONIA  CAPSULES. 

Medical  Officers  in  units  must  see  that  a  proper  proportion  of 
the  ammonia  capsules  are  with  stretcher  bearers  in  the  front 
line,  in  readiness  for  their  immediate  use  after  a  gas  attack. 

8.  GAS  ALARM. 

In  the  event  of  an  enemy  gas  attack  the  alarm  will  at  once 
be  given  by  all  means  available  —  by  telephone,  Strombos  Horns, 
gongs  and,  if  necessary,  by  orderly.  Sentries  will  warn  all  ranks 
in  trenches,  dug-outs,  observation  posts  or  mine-shafts. 

All  ranks  will  at  once  put  on  their  box  respirators. 

Troops  in  the  front  line  trenches  and  elsewhere  where  the 
tactical  situation  requires  it,  will  stand  to  arms.  All  ranks  in 
the  front  lines  are  forbidden  to  remain  in,  or  go  into,  dug-outs 
or  move  to  a  flank  or  to  the  rear. 

If  troops  in  support  or  reserve  lines  of  trenches  remain  in,  or 
into,  unprotected  dug-outs,  they  must  continue  to  wear  their 
anti-gas  appliances. 

Unnecessary  Movement  to  Cease.—  There  must  be  as  little 
movement  and  talking  as  possible. 

On  the  alarm  being  given,  all  bodies  of  troops  or  transport 
on  the  move  will  halt  and  all  working  parties  cease  work  until 
the  gas  cloud  has  passed. 

If  a  relief  is  going  on,  units  should  stand  steady  as  far  as 
possible  until  the  gas  cloud  has  passed. 

Supports  and  parties  bringing  up  ammunition  and  grenades  will 
only  be  moved  up  if  the  tactical  situation  demands. 

Protected  Shelters. —  The  blanket  doorways  of  protected  dug- 
outs,  cellars,  etc.,  will  be  let  down  and  carefully  fixed  in  position. 

9.  ACTION  DURING  AN  ENEMY  GAS  ATTACK. 

Should  the  gas  cloud  be  unaccompanied  by  an  infantry  attack, 
the  signal  for  gas  will  be  sent  and  the  S.  0.  S.  signal  will  not  be 
made  unless  an  infantry  attack  develops. 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 


15 


Tactical  Measures. —  The  troops  in  the  front  trenches  will  open 
a  slow  rate  of  rifle  fire  against  the  enemy  trenches;  occasional  short 
bursts  should  be  fired  from  machine  guns  to  ascertain  that  these 
are  in  working  order.  All  available  howitzers  should  be  turned  on 
the  enemy’s  trenches  from  which  the  gas  is  being  emitted,  or  in 
which  the  enemy  infantry  may  be  concentrating  for  the  assault. 

Should  an  infantry  attack  develop,  the  normal  procedure  of 
S.  O.  S.  will  be  carried  out. 

Troops  in  the  front  line  must  be  prepared  to  bring  a  cross  fire 
to  bear  on  the  enemy  attempting  to  advance  against  a-  gassed 
portion  of  the  line. 

Movement. —  All  movement  must  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 
There  should  be  as  little  moving  about  and  talking  as  possible 
in  the  trenches.  Men  must  be  made  to  realize  that,  with  the 
gas  now  used  by  the  enemy,  the  observance  of  this  rule  may  be 
essential  for  their  safety. 

io.  ACTION  AFTER  AN  ENEMY  GAS  ATTACK. 

Removal  of  Respirators,  etc. —  Men  in  charge  of  anti-gas  fans 
will  use  them  as  soon  as  the  gas  cloud  has  passed,  so  as  to 
admit  of  respirators  being  removed. 

Box  respirators  will  not  be  removed  after  a  gas  attack  until 
permission  has  been  given  by  the  Company  Commander  who  will, 
when  possible,  ascertain  from  officers  and  N.C.O’s.  who  have 
been  trained  at  a  Gas  School  that  it  is  safe  to  do  so. 

Preparation  for  a  Subsequent  Attack. —  So  as  to  be  ready  for  a 
subsequent  gas  cloud,  all  ranks  will  replace  their  box  respirators 
in  the  “  Alert  ”  position. 

A  sharp  look-out  must  be  maintained  for  a  repetition  of  the 
gas  attack  as  long  as  the  wind  continues  in  the  dangerous 
quarter. 

Clearing  of  Shelters. —  Dug-outs,  cellars,  etc.,  must  not  be  en¬ 
tered  before  they  have  been  thoroughly  ventilated,  except  by 
men  wearing  box  respirators.  Thorough  ventilation,  by  means  of 
fires  or  anti-gas  fans,  is  the  only  sure  way  of  clearing  a  shelter. 

Movement. —  No  man  suffering  from  the  effects  of  gas  is  to  be 
allowed  to  walk  to  the  dressing  station. 

The  clearing  of  trenches  and  dug-outs  must  not  be  carried  out 
by  men  who  have  been  affected  by  the  gas. 


16 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 


After  a  gas  attack,  troops  in  the  front  trenches  are  to  be  re¬ 
lieved  of  all  fatigue  and  carrying  work  for  twenty-four  hours  by 
sending  up  working  parties  from  companies  in  rear. 

Horses  which  have  been  exposed  to  the  gas  should  not  be 
worked  for  twenty-four  hours  if  it  can  be  avoided. 

Cleaning  of  Arms. —  Rifles  and  machine  guns  must  be  cleaned 
after  a  gas  attack.  Oil  cleaning  will  prevent  corrosion  for  twelve 
hours,  but  the  first  opportunity  must  be  taken  to  clean  all  parts 
in  boiling  water  containing  a  little  soda. 

THIRD  LECTURE. 

n.  GAS  SHELLS. 

These  shells  contain  a  small  bursting  charge  and  a  liquid 
chemical  substance  which  is  converted  into  vapor  and  gas  when 
the  shell  bursts.  To  have  a  satisfactory  effect  a  large  number 
must  be  discharged  in  a  small  space.  The  bursting  charge, 
though  not  so  powerful  as  that  of  the  ordinary  shell,  is  neverthe¬ 
less  sufficient  to  produce  a  considerable  exposive  effect  in  addition 
to  the  actual  gases. 

Talk  briefly  upon: 

(1)  Nature  of  Armament. 

(2)  Description  of  the  various  kinds  of  shells.  Poisonous  and 
lachrymatory  and  their  effects. 

(3)  The  tactical  use  of  gas  shells. 

It  is  very  important  that  each  man  should  be  able  to  recognize 
gas  shells,  be  able  to  give  the  alarm  and  put  on  his  protection 
promptly.  The  alarm  is  given  either  by  men  shouting  “  Gas 
Shells”  or  using  rattles.  The  following  scheme  is  suggested: 

1.  A  short  talk  to  the  men  (15  minutes)  upon  these  points: 

(a)  Up  to  5  miles  from  front  line  likely  to  get  Gas  Shells, 
they  can  be  recognized  by: 

(1)  Wobbly  noise. 

(2)  Slight  detonation  on  bursting  (duds). 

(3)  Dense  white  cloud  on  bursting. 

(b)  Necessary  that  all  men  within  300  feet  of  bursting  shell 
should  get  the  alarm  and  put  on  protection. 

(c)  By  considering  (1)  The  direction  of  the  wind;  (2)  Their 
distance  from  bursting  shell. 

Men  should  be  able  to  immediately  decide  whether  to  shout 
“  Gas  Shells  ”  first,  hold  breath  and  then  put  on  protection,  or 
hold  breath,  put  on  protection  and  then  shout  “  Gas  Shells.” 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 


17 


Rattles  can  be  used,  after  men,  who  have  them,  have  completely 
adjusted  their  protection.  All  must  be  impressed  with  the 
complete  protection  afforded  by  the  S.  B.  R. 

2.  After  all  the  men  have  thoroughly  understood  the  procedure 
to  be  adopted,  the  following  practical  work  should  be  followed: 

(a)  Paper  bags  burst  to  represent  gas  shells,  at  varying 
distances  and  directions.  Men  should  either  shout  “  Gas  Shells  ” 
first  or  get  on  protection  first  according  to  (c)  (1).  Repeat 
when  squad  is  on  the  move. 

(b)  Small  puff  balls  (gunpowder,  brown  paper,  fuse)  burst 
and  procedure  in  (2)  (a)  followed. 

(c)  By  arrangement  with  the  Gas  Officer,  gas  can  be  liberated 
as  each  puff-ball  bursts. 

3.  Repeat  (a),  (b)  and  (c)  above  with  the  S.  B.  R’s.  at  the 
slung  position.  Squads  stationary  and  moving,  men  must  remem¬ 
ber  to: 

(a)  To  move  out  of  thick  part  of  cloud. 

(b)  To  keep  clear  of  area  being  shelled. 

(c)  To  pick  up  all  equipment  before  moving  on. 

N.  C.  O’s  in  charge  of  squads  must  move  their  men  out  of  area 
shelled  and  out  of  cloud  as  quickly  as  possible. 

FOURTH  LECTURE. 

12.  TYPICAL  STANDING  ORDERS  FOR  COMPANY  GAS 
N.  C.  O’S. 

(1)  They  will  assist  officers  at  the  inspection  of  box  respirators, 
helmets  and  goggles  and  in  making  such  local  repairs  as  are 
possible.  They  will  assist  in  training  men  in  the  use  of  anti-gas 
appliances. 

(2)  Under  the  Company  Commander  they  will  have  charge  of 
all  anti-gas  trench  stores  as  follows: 

(a)  Strombos  Horns  and  other  Gas  Alarm  Devices  —  Inspect 
daily  and  see  that  sentries  posted  to  them  know  how  they 
should  be  used. 

(b)  Gas-proof  Shelters  —  See  that  the  blanket  doorways  fit 
and  are  kept  in  good  order. 

(c)  Anti-Gas  Fans  —  See  that  they  are  in  their  proper  posi¬ 
tion  and  in  serviceable  condition. 

(d)  Stores  of  fuel  for  clearing  shelters  —  Insure  sufficient  sup¬ 
ply  for  clearing  all  dug-outs,  to  be  maintained  under  company 
arrangements 


18 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 


(e)  Vermorel  Sprayers  —  Maintain  in  working  order  and  see 
that  supply  of  solution  is  available. 

(f)  Gas  Sampling  Apparatus  —  Have  charge  of  the  vacuum 
bulbs  and  gas-testing  tubes.  Keep  a  stock  of  corked  bottles 
and  small  tins  with  well-fitting  lids  for  collecting  samples  of 
earth  and  water  after  a  gas  shell  attack. 

(3)  On  relief  they  will  assist  the  Company  Commander  in  taking 
over  all  anti-gas  trench  stores.  The  Company  Gas  N.  C.  O’s. 
should  accompany  the  advance  party  and  take  over  anti-gas 
trench  stores  (by  daylight  if  possible). 

(4)  They  will  make  wind  observations  every  three  hours,  or 
more  frequently  if  the  wind  is  in  or  nearing  a  dangerous  quarter, 
and  will  report  any  change  of  wind  to  the  Company  Commander. 

(5)  During  a  gas  cloud  attack  they  will  take  gas  samples  by 
means  of  the  vacuum  bulbs  and  gas-testing  tubes. 

(G)  During  or  after  the  attack  the  N.  C.  0.  must  note  down  in 
writing  as  much  information  regarding  the  attack  as  possible. 

(7)  As  soon  as  possible  after  the  conclusion  of  a  gas  shell 
bombardment,  the  Gas  N.  C.  0.  must  fill  his  bottles  and  tins  and 
take  samples  of  water,  mud  or  earth,  from  those  parts  of  the 
line  which  are  smelling  most  strongly  of  shell  gases.  He  should 
note  the  position  of  any  blind  shells. 

(8)  As  soon  as  possible  after  a  gas  attack,  all  samples  and 
notes  will  be  handed  to  the  Company  Commander  for  trans¬ 
mission  to  the  Divisional  Gas  Officer. 

First  Aid. —  Talk  on  the  following  points: 

(1)  If  a  man  is  gassed  or  wounded  he  must  on  no  account  be 
allowed  to  remove  his  respirator  while  the  gas  is  about.  Hands 
to  be  tied  if  necessary.  ' 

(2)  Clothing  loosened  round  neck,  chest  and  waist.  Equipment, 
etc.,  removed. 

(3)  Man  to  be  removed  to  a  protected  dug-out,  or  if  that  is  not 
possible,  placed  on  the  top  of  the  parados. 

(4)  A  gassed  man  must  not  walk.  He  must  be  treated  as  a 
stretcher  case.  REST  IS  ESSENTIAL. 

(5)  When  gas  cloud  has  been  cleared  away  or  the  man  has 
reached  a  protected  dug-out,  his  respirator  may  be  removed. 

(6)  Vomiting  is  beneficial. 

(7)  Ammonia  inhalation  from  Capsules  in  possession  of 
stretcher  bearers  often  give  relief. 

(8)  No  movement  and  as  much  rest  as  possible. 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 


19 


9.  Sometimes  alcoholic  treatment  will  help. 

1(L  MOST  IMPORTANT  — Do  not  use  artifical  respiration. 

Poisoning  By  Carbon  Monoxide. —  This  gas  is  not  used  directly 
in  an  attack,  but  causes  a  large  number  of  deaths. 

It  poisons  the  blood.  It  is  much  lighter  than  air. 

It  cannot  be  liquified  easily. 

The  respirator  is  not  protection  against  this  gas. 

Death  by  this  gas  is  very  pleasant,  one  simply  goes  to  sleep, 
with  no  ill  effect. 

It  is  formed  when  carbon  burns,  i.  e.,  when  there  is  very  little 
air  in  a  confined  place. 

When  any  high  explosive  explodes  in  a  confined  place,  such 
as  the  entrance  to  a  trench,  mine  or  dug-out,  carbon  monoxide 
is  formed. 

It  forms  from  a  back  blow  from  machine-guns,  also  from 
artillery  that  is  enclosed  or  confined. 

Men  who  are  engaged  in  trench  work  or  mines,  and  have  to 
use  high  explosives  are  most  subjected  to  this  kind  of  gas. 

Explosion  of  coal  dust  forms  carbon  monoxide. 

This  set  lasts  for  one-half  hour,  and  one  has  to  be  verv  care- 
ful  with  it  or  it  is  liable  to  go  up. 

Pressure  is  about  150  atmospheres. 

This  is  strapped  to  the  body. 

Artificial  respiration  is  the  only  cure. 

No  action  on  the  heart,  but  on  the  blood. 

13.  PROTECTION  OF  SHELTERS. 

(1)  Methods  of  Protection. —  Protection  of  dug-outs,  cellars, 
buildings,  etc.,  is  given  if  all  entrances  are  closed  by  well-fitting 
doors  or  by  blankets  sprayed  with  hypo  solution  from  a  Vermorel 
sprayer.  Practically  no  gas  passes  through  a  wet  blanket,  and 
the  protection  depends  on  getting  a  good  joint  at  the  sides  and 
bottom  of  a  doorway,  so  as  to  stop  all  draughts.  This  can  be 
effected  by  letting  the  blanket  rest  on  battens,  fixed  with  a 
slight  slope,  against  the  door  frame.  The  blanket  should  overlap 
the  outer  sides  and  a  fold  should  lie  on  the  ground  at  the  bottom. 
A  pole  is  fastened  to  the  blanket,  which  allows  the  latter  to  be 
rolled  up  on  the  frame  and  causes  it  to  fall  evenly. 

Wherever  possible,  particularly  where  there  is  likely  to  be 
movement  in  and  out  of  the  shelter,  two  blankets  fitted  in  this 
way  but  sloping  in  opposite  directions  should  be  provided.  There 


20 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 


should  be  an  interval  of  at  least  three  feet  between  the  two 
frames,  and  the  larger  this  vestibule  is  made,  the  more  efficient' 
is  the  dug-out.  When  not  in  use,  the  blankets  should  be  rolled 
up  and  held  so  that  they  can  be  readily  released,  and  so  should  be 
sprayed  occasionally  with  water  or  a  little  Vermorel  sprayer 
solution. 

If  the  blankets  become  stiff  from  a  deposit  of  chemicals,  they 
should  be  sprayed  with  water. 

All  ranks  must  be  taught  how  to  use  gas-proof  dug-outs,  e.  g., 
how  to  enter  a  protected  doorway  quickly,  replacing  the  blanket 
immediately,  and  carrying  in  as  little  outside  air  as  possible. 

The  protection  afforded  by  these  means  is  just  as  complete 
against  lachrymatory  gases  as  it  is  against  cloud  gas  and  poison¬ 
ous  shell  gases. 

Shelters  Which  Should  Be  Protected. —  The  following  should 
always  be  protected: 

Medical  aid-posts  and  advanced  dressing  stations,  Company, 
Battalion  and  Brigade  Headquarters,  Signal  Shelters  and  any 
other  place  where  work  has  to  be  carried  out  during  a  gas  attack. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  it  is  desirable  to  protect  all  dug-outs, 
cellars  and  buildings  within  the  shell  area,  particularly  those  of 
artillery  personnel.  It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  the  pro¬ 
tection  of  dug-outs  for  troops  in  the  front  line  of  trenches  is 
usually  inadvisable  on  account  of  the  delay  involved  in  getting 
men  out  in  time  of  attack.  It  is  desirable  to  protect  stretcher 
bearers’  dug-outs  with  a  view  to  putting  casualties  in  them. 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 
14.  PROTECTED  DUGOUTS. 


D 


S 


22 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 
PART  2.— SIX-DAY  COURSE. 


15.  SIX-DAY  COURSE  IN  ANTI-GAS  MEASURES. 


8:30-  9:15  A.  M. 


9 : 15-  9:30  A.  M. 
9:30-10:15  A.  M. 


10:15-11:30  A.  M. 


First  Day. 

Introductory. 

1.  Methods  of  gas  attack. 

2.  History  of  gas  attacks  and  defense. 

3.  Necessity  for  careful  training. 

Recess.  Issue  of  Small  Box  Respirators. 

The  Gas  Mask.  (Small  Box  Respirator.) 

1.  Description  and  mechanism  (with  mask 

in  hand ) . 

2.  Inspection. 

3.  Demonstration  of  drills. 

Practical. 


1.  Visit  to  Gas  House  for: 

(a)  Smell  of  chlorine. 

(b)  Fitting  by  passing  through  lach- 

rymator. 

2.  Drill  in  adjustment  —  by  numbers. 

Practice  A.  B,  F.  G. 


Second  Day. 

8:30-10:15  A.  M.  The  Cloud  Gas'  Attack. 

1.  Kinds  of  gas  used.  Effects. 

2.  Methods  of  installing  gas  in  trenches. 

3.  Three  signs  of  approaching  cloud  attack. 
Wind  observations.  Introductory.  (Nec¬ 
essary  conditions.) 

Recess.  Exercise  in  holding  breath. 

5.  Wind  dangerous  period.  Precautions 

taken. 

6.  Means  of  giving  alarm  for  cloud  gas. 

7.  Action  to  be  taken  in  the  trenches  dur¬ 

ing  a  gas  cloud  attack  and  rules  to  be 
observed. 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 


23 


10:15-11:30  A.  M. 

$ 

Drills. 

Exercise  in  holding  breath. 

Adjustment  by  the  numbers. 

Practice  D,  E,  H. 

Speed  adjustment.  (Alternate  with  adjust¬ 
ment  by  the  numbers. ) 

8:30-10:30  A.  m. 

Third  Day. 

Cloud  Gas  Attack  (continued). 

1.  Action  after  a  gas  attack  —  clearing  of 

the  dugouts  and  trenches. 

2.  Protection  of  arms,  ammunition  and 

equipment. 

Recess  —  Drills. 

Exercise  in  holding  breath. 

Speed  with  accuracy  of  adjustment. 

3.  Protected  dugouts.  Description  and 

use  of. 

4.  Use  of  smoke  in  warfare. 

10:30-11:30  A.  M. 

Practical.  Passing  through  chlorine. 

8:30-  9:10  A.  M. 

Fourth  Day. 

Wind  observations.  Beaufort  scale.  Wind 

9  : 10-  9:30  A.  M. 

9 : 30-1 1 : 30  A.  M. 

reports. 

Practical  wind  reports. 

Smoke  and  gas  cloud  demonstration  in 
trenches,  followed  by  clearing  of  trenches 
and  dugouts  with  fans  and  fire. 

8:30-  9:45  A.  M. 

Fifth  Day. 

Gas  Shells. 

1.  Description.  Armaments. 

2.  Kinds  of  gas  used. 

3.  Tactical  uses. 

4.  Signs  of  a  gas  shell  attack. 

5.  Methods  of  giving  the  alarm. 

Note-books  to  be  handed  in. 

9 : 45-1 1:00  A.  M. 
11:00-11:30  A.  M. 

Gas  Shell  Demonstration. 

Route  march  in  respirators. 

24 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 


Sixth  Day. 

8:30-  9:00  a.  m.  Effect  of  Gas  and  Treatment  of  Gas  Cases. 


9:00-10:00  A.  M. 


10:00-11:00  A.  M. 
11:00-11:30  A.  M. 


First  Aid. 

Organization  of  Gas  Service  in  Foreign  Forces. 
Anti-gas  duties  with  an  infantry  regiment. 
Standing  orders. 

Duties  of  Company  Gas  N.C.O. 

Mutual  Instruction  in  Squads. 

Disinfection  of  gas  appliances.  Demonstra¬ 
tion  and  conferences. 


ANTI-GAS  MEASURES. 

16.  First  Lecture. 

First  Use  of  Gas  by  Germans,  April  22,  1915. —  Gas  (Cl)  was 
first  used  by  the  Germans  on  April  22,  1915,  in  back  of  Ypres  near 
the  junction  of  the  French  and  Canadian  lines.  The  gas  was  sent 
over  by  the  cloud  method.  This  Chlorine  Gas  causes  death  by 
suffocation.  It  was  entirely  unexpected,  so  heavy  casualties 
resulted.  There  was  no  protection  against  it  at  the  time.  Since 
that  date  the  Germans  have  been  using  gas  with  increasing  clever¬ 
ness.  The  Allies  soon  caught  on  and  have  used  it  in  return. 

First  crude  protection  against  gas,  used  by  the  Allies. —  As  a 
protection  against  chlorine  gas  attacks,  the  Allies,  at  first,  used  to 
soak  their  handkerchiefs  in  water  or  in  their  own  urine  and 
wrapped  it  about  the  nose  and  mouth.  Then  it  was  found  that 
Sodium  Thiosulphate  (Hypo)  would  absorb  chlorine,  so  pads 
soaked  in  Hypo  and  tied  around  the  neck  by  tapes  were  used. 

Crude  methods  used. —  Another  means  of  protection  against 
chlorine,  gas  was  a  bottle  with  the  bottom  knocked  out  and  filled 
with  moist  earth  and  cotton.  The  soldier  breathed  through  this 
bottle  by  applying  to  his  lips. 

Second  Great  Gas  Attack  —  Chlorine-Phosgene.  November  19, 
1915. —  Realizing  the  Allies  had  protection  against  Cl,  on  Nov.  19, 
1915,  the  Germans  sent  over  bv  the  cloud  method  a  combination 
of  chlorine  and  phosgene.  The  phosgene  was  not  absorbed  by 
Hypo,  water  or  urine.  Hence,  more  adequate  protection  was 
needed. 

Gas  Shell  Attack  by  Boches  July,  1915. —  In  July,  1915,  the 
Germans  began  to  put  gas  in  shells.  Anyone  near  a  bursting 
shell  became  a  casualty.  In  every  battle  now,  gas  shells  are  used. 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 


25 


Last  Great  Gas  Cloud  Attack,  Jan.  31,  1917. —  On  Jan.  31,  1917, 
there  occurred  a  cloud  gas  attack  against  the  French,  when 
casualties  occurred  twenty  miles  behind  the  lines. 

Methods  of  Gas  Attack. —  There  are  two  ways  gas  may  be  sent 
over: 

1.  Cloud  or  Mist: 

Gas  in  form  of  liquid  is  placed  in  iron  cylinders  and  taken  to 
front  line  trenches.  When  wind  is  favorable  the  cylinders  are 
opened,  the  liquid  turned  into  gas,  and  carried  by  wind  over  the 
enemy’s  trenches. 

2.  Gas  Shell: 

Shells  are  filled  with  poisonous  liquids  which  turn  into  poison¬ 
ous  vapor  upon  bursting  of  shell. 

Cloud  Method  Out  of  Date. —  The  cloud  method  is  seldom  used 
now  and  then  only  against  undisciplined  and  poorly  trained  men. 

Gas  Shells  Used  Now. —  Gas  shell  method  now  used  for  nine- 
tenths  of  gas  attacks  in  France.  Take  place  every  day  and  every 
minute.  Thirty  to  forty  per  cent  of  shells  fired  by  every  gun  and 
battery  are  gas  shells. 

Need  for  Careful  Training. —  Success  of  these  attacks  is  due  to 
surprise.  Hence  men  must  be  very  carefully  trained,  always  on 
the  alert,  and  expert  in  defense  against  gas  attacks. 

Men  must  understand: 

1.  Shell  or  cloud  gas  attacks. 

2.  Their  protection  and  its  mechanism. 

3.  Quick  adjustment  of  masks. 

4.  Must  hold  breath  while  donning. 

5.  Must  always  be  on  alert  and  ready  to  give  gas  alarm. 

6.  Must  have  confidence  in  protection. 

Reasons  for  Passing  Men  Through  Gas  Chamber.— For  the  fol¬ 
lowing  reasons  men  must  go  through  Gas  Chamber: 

(a)  Every  Officer,  N.  C.  0.  and  man  must  pass  through  gas 

before  going  over  seas. 

(b)  Insures  careful  adjustment  of  masks. 

(c)  Insures  careful  inspection. 

The  Gas  Mask. —  The  Gas  Mask,  called  Small  Box  Respirator,  is 
a  protection  against  all  gases  used  by  Germans  such  as  Chlorine 
(affects  lungs)  ;  Prussic  acid  (affects  nerves)  ;  Tear  Shells  (affects 
eyes),  and  “Mustard  Oil  Gas”  (affects  skin). 


26  SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 

The  Cloud  Gas  Attack. 

Qualities  Desired  in  Gases  Used  in  Clouds: 

1.  Must  be  heavier  than  air. 

2.  Easily  liquified. 

3.  Cheap  to  manufacture  and  raw  material  plentiful. 

4.  Very  poisonous. 

Gases  Used  in  Cloud  Method. —  Gases  used  almost  exclusively  in 
Cloud  Gas  Attacks  are  Chlorine  and  Phosgene. 

These  two  gases  are  liquified  by  cold  and  pressure  and  put  in 
steel  cylinders.  The  cylinders  act  exactly  like  soda  water 
containers. 

These  cylinders  are  taken  into  the  front  line  trenches  and  put 
in  special  emplacements  under  the  parapet,  beneath  the  fire  step  — 
four  or  five  in  a  place. 

Number  of  cylinders  needed  in  attack  varies.  In  one  attack 
3,500  cylinders  were  used  for  one  mile  front.  Three  or  more 
successive  waves  are  sent  over  in  one  attack  to  surprise  the  enemy. 
Cylinders  are  covered  over  with  sand  bags  because  (1)  they  are 
out  of  the  way  and  (2)  in  trench  raids  for  gas  scouting,  they  are 
hidden  from  view;  (3)  sand  bags  save  cylinders  from  hostile  fire. 

When  aviators  or  scouts  discover  such  gas  present  they  signal 
back  to  artillery  G-A-S.  If  accompanied  by  infantry  attack,  artil¬ 
lery  is  warned  in  ordinary  way. 

Usual  combination  of  Chlorine  and  Phosgene: 

Summer,  50  per  cent  Cl  and  50  per  cent  Phosgene. 

Winter,  90  per  cent  Cl  and  10  per  cent  Phosgene. 

Chlorine  and  Phosgene  belong  to  a  class  of  gases  called  asphyxi¬ 
ants.  They  attack  the  lungs  and  cause  death  by  suffocation. 
Each  lung  is  filled  with  air  spaces  and  cells,  the  latter  taking  up 
the  oxygen  from  the  air  and  transferring  it  to  the  blood.  Chlor¬ 
ine  destroys  the  layer  of  cells  so  it  cannot  function  and  death 
results.  It  also  causes  the  cells  to  exude  matter  which  does  not 
dry  up  but  fills  the  lungs  with  liquid  mass.  Table  of  concentra¬ 
tion  for  Chlorine: 

1  in  10,000  will  knock  a  man  out  in  five  minutes. 

1  in  100,000  for  five  hours  will  cause  Bronchitis. 

1  in  28,000  for  five  minutes  will  cause  pneumonia. 

Concentration  aimed  at  in  gas  attacks  is  1  in  2,000. 

Chlorine. —  Chlorine  is  2.5  times  heavier  than  air.  Hence  rolls 
along  the  ground.  Greenish  yellow  in  color. 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN.  27 

Phosgene. —  Phosgene  is  3.5  times  heavier  than  air.  It  is  color¬ 
less.  Acts  as  an  asphyxiant  but  is  only  half  as  strong  as  chlorine. 
It  also  has  a  delayed  action  on  the  heart,  which  acts  two  days 
afterwards.  Hence  in  trenches  after  an  attack  troops  and  horses 
are  rested  for  24  hours,  for  any  exertion  by  a  man  who  has  been 
gassed  by  Phosgene  makes  the  effects  much  worse.  Fresh  troops 
take  their  places.  Phosgene  smells  like  musty  hay. 

Action  during  Wind  Dangerous  Period. —  As  soon  as  wind  is 
discovered  to  be  dangerous,  notices  are  posted  to  that  effect. 
Five  to  8  m.  p.  h.  is  the  best  speed.  Favorably,  steady  wind 
must  be  waited  for;  hence,  if  the  enemy  sees  that  wind  is  blow¬ 
ing  from  our  trenches  toward  them,  they  prepare  for  a  gas 
attack. 

Wind  Observations. —  Wind  observations  are  made  every  three 
hours : 

1.  To  determine  direction  of  wind. 

2.  To  determine  strength  of  wind. 

Gas  Alarms. —  Methods  of  giving  the  alarm  are  prepared  as 
follows:  Sentries  put  all  along  front  to  watch  for  gas.  Every 
“  bay  ”  has  a  sentry.  The  alarm  is  given  by  striking  an  empty 
shell  case  with  a  piece  of  iron  or  wooden  mallet.  These  are 
called  Lateral  Alarms.  Strombos  horns  are  also  used  — 14  to 
one  mile  of  front  —  and  extend  back  to  rear  of  lines.  These 
horns  are  blown  by  compressed  air  and  may  be  heard  400  to  500 
yards. 

Each  sentry,  posted  by  lateral  alarms  or  strombos  horns,  has 
two  men  near  by  to  warn  all  men  sleeping  in  dugouts.  Head¬ 
quarters  and  Signal  dug-outs  all  have  sentries.  Artillery  obser¬ 
vation  posts  are  also  warned.  During  Wind  Dangerous  all  masks 
are  worn  at  the  alert  position  and  are  inspected  every  day. 

The  Company  Gas  N.  C.  0.  reports  to  Company  Commander 
to  give  advice,  if  needed.  Men  in  front  line  trenches  sleep  on 
fire  step  during  Wind  Dangerous  period,  and  men  in  front  or  rear 
sleep  with  mass  at  the  alert  position. 

Men  in  billets  must  be  warned. 

Children  playing  in  the  streets  wear  masks  strapped  on.  Rifles 
are  smeared  with  oil  or  vaseline  to  protect  metal  from  gas. 

Action  During  Gas  Attack.—  Sentry  can  tell  in  three  ways  that 
gas  is  coming:  1.  Hear  it  escaping  from  cylinders.  2.  See  cloud 
coming.  3.  Smell  the  gas.  Upon  perceiving  gas  attack,  sentry 
holds  breath,  gives  alarm,  puts  on,  mask  and  continues  to  give 


23 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 


alarm.  All  unnecessary  movement  must  cease.  Working  parties 
and  reliefs  stop.  Sentries  lower  blanket  door  at  dugouts.  Sentry 
holds  breath,  lowers  first  blanket,  passes  through  and  lowers 
second  blanket,  and  then  puts  on  his  mask. 

G-A-S  is  sent  back  to  artillery  if  attack  is  not  accompanied  by 
infantry.  If  followed  by  infantry  S-O-S  is  sent.  Men  in  front 
line  trenches  mount  fire  step  and  commence  a  slow  rate  of  fire. 
This  helps  to  protect  the  inside  of  rifle  barrels  from  gas  and  also 
steadies  the  men. 

Cloud  attacks  now  very  few  due  to  warning  given  by  the  wind 
and  men  are  not  surprised.  Only  used  now  against  untrained 
troops  with  little  or  no  anti-gas  training.  (With  only  three  days’ 
training  1,600  Germans  were  killed  by  one  gas  attack.) 

Mechanism  of  Strombos  Horn. —  Each  Strombos  Horn  has  two 
compressed  air  cylinders,  one  attached  and  the  other  in  reserve. 
Pressure  of  air  in  cylinder  should  be  175  kilograms  per  sq.  cm. 
and  must  never  be  less  than  150  kilograms  per  sq.  cm.  Strombos 
Horns  are  placed  in  horizontal  position  to  protect  from  rain. 


STROMBOS  HORN. 


Brass  plate  vibrates  —  compressed  air  pushing  down  onto  bross 
plate  causes  it  to  vibrate,  giving  it  the  sound  of  a  “  G  ”  note  on 
the  bugle. 

Two  cylinders  are  with  each  horn;  after  an  attack  old  cylinder 
Ms  disconnected  and  new  one  attached,  waiting  for  the  next  gas 
attack.  One  sentry  is  posted  over  each  strombos  horn. 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 

17.  METHODS  OF  GETTING  GAS  OUT  OF  TRENCH. 

Two  men  in  step  and  coming  toward  each  other. 


29 


Three  men  in  each  sector,  going  in  the  same  direction  and  in  step. 


Clearing  dugout: 

1.  By  natural  ventilation  it  takes  from  four  to  six  hours  to 
clear  a  dugout  of  Chlorine  or  Phosgene. 

2.  Tear  Gas  takes  from  three  to  four  days. 

Fires  in  dugout. —  Always  wear  mask. 


18.  Second  Lecture. 

Action  After  Gas  Attack. — -Before  respirators  are  removed  the 
trenches  and  dugouts  must  be  cleared  of  gas.  The  gas  settles 
into  all  holes  at  bottom  of  trenches  and  is  cleared  by  fans  or 
fires.  Fans  used  chiefly  in  trenches.  Men  using  fans  work  out 
of  step.  When  they  face  each  other  they  work  in  step.  If  men 
have  been  even  slightly  gassed  they  should  not  be  allowed  to 
help  clear  trenches. 

Clearing  Dugouts.—  There  are  three  methods  of  clearing  dug- 
outs:  1.  Natural  Ventilation. —  Chlorine  and  Phosgene  take  from 
three  to  six  hours  to  get  out  by  natural  ventilation. 

2.  By  Fires. —  Fire  is  made  in  center  of  double  entrance  dugout, 
six  inches  above  level  of  floor,  in  a  brazier  or  pail.  One  pound 


30  SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 

of  wood  used  for  200  cu.  ft.  of  air  space.  In  single  entrance  dug- 
out  fire  is  built  in  passage  one-third  way  from  dugout.  In  a  dug- 
out  with  steps  leading  into  it,  fire  is  built  on  steps  near  entrance. 

3.  By  Fans. 

Action  of  Gas  on  Rifles,  Ammunition  and  Equipment. —  Chlor¬ 
ine  is  the  chief  gas  acting  on  the  metals.  Therefore,  all  guns, 
mechanisms  and  bright  parts  of  instruments  are  covered  with 
light  oil  or  vaseline.  Ammunition,  bombs,  etc.,  are  stored  in 
compartments  protected  from  gas  by  heavy  blankets.  To  counter¬ 
act  action  of  gas  in  rifle  barrels  a  solution  of  soda  is  poured 
down  barrel  and  then  properly  cleaned  with  oil.  In  case  of 
wounds  Chlorine  gas  acts  as  an  antiseptic.  Does  not  harm  food; 
may  be  slight  taste. 

Effect  of  Gas  on  Rifles,  Ammunition  and  Equipment. 

The  chief  gas  that  acts  is  Chlorine: 

Brass  and  copper:  Blue  powder. 

Steel  and  iron:  Rust. 

All  rifles,  ammunition,  signal  apparatus  and  bombs  should  be 
covered  with  ordinary  rifle  oil,  i.e.,  3  in  1  or  vaseline. 

Use  vaseline  if  available,  if  not  oil  is  the  next  best  for  this 
purpose. 

Blankets  are  sprayed  with  water. 

Hinges  are  covered  with  flannel  or  cloth  and  soaked  in  water 

Acid  will  form  in  rifle  barrels,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  pour 
soda  into  them  after  every  attack  by  gas,  as  acid  will  spread 
immediately. 

No  dangerous  effect  on  food  except  on  canned  goods  that  are 
open. 

If  wounded  in  a  gas  attack  the  chances  of  recovery  are  better 
than  if  wounded  elsewhere. 

Protected  Dugouts.— -  Most  of  the  second  and  third  line  dugouts 
are  protected,  most  of  the  doors  having  double  blankets,  looping 
into  dugouts. 

There  are  no  protected  dugouts  in  the  front  line  trenches.  Dug- 
outs  in  second  line  and  support  lines  are  protected  by  double  door 
of  blankets. 

Construction. — -  Blankets  rest  against  beams  with  roller  which 
holds  them  tight  to  the  beams.  Blankets  are  soaked  in  substance 
which  absorbs  water.  They  are  sprayed  once  a  week  with  ordi- 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN.  31 

nary  hype  or  a  compound  (Vermorel  Spray).  14  lbs.  Hype.  3  lbs. 
soda,  3  gal.  water. 

Rollers  extend  over  edge  of  blankets  and  hang  on  nails  at  top 
of  entrance  when  blankets  are  rolled  up.  Dangerous  to  sleep  in 
dugouts,  with  men  going  in  and  out,  without  respirator  near. 


When  wind  is  dangerous  or  likely  to  be  so,  wind  observations, 
and  reports  are  made  every  3  hours  by  every  Company  Com¬ 
mander  in  front  line  trenches,  and  if  situation  warrants,  Wind 
Dangerous  or  Gas  Alert  is  ordered  from  Brigade  Hdqrs.  In 
making  out  wind  reports  the  direction  and  strength  of  the  wind 
must  be  known. 


Beaufort 

No. 

0 

1 

2 

•  3  _ 

4 

5 


Beaufort  Scale. 


Speed 
m.  p.  li. 

Natural  Objects. 

Behavior  of  Flag. 

0 

Smoke  straight  up. 

No  movement. 

2 

Smoke  slants. 

No  movement. 

5 

Felt  on  face. 

Slight  movement. 

10 

Paper,  etc.,  moved. 

!  up. 

15 

Bushes  sway. 

Up,  falling  down. 

20 

Tree-tops  sway. 

Wavelets  on  water. 

Up,  falling  less  often 

30 

Trees  sway  and  whistle. 

0 


32 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 


Wind  Report. 

Trench  No.  303  December  6,  1917 

Time  Direction  Strength,  M.  P.  H.  Remarks 

10.30  a.  m.  S.  SW.  5  m.  p.  h.  Gusty. 

FIRST  AID  TO  GASSED, 
ig.  Third  Lecture. 

First  thing  a  wounded  man  tries  to  do  is  to  tear  off  his  helmet, 
which  is  fatal  if  any  gas  is  present.  Hence  everyone  should  try 
to  prevent  this  if  possible.  Next  get  him  as  high  out  of  the  gas 
as  possible,  and  into  a  protected  dugout.  After  getting  him  to 
protected  dugout  and  mask  removed,  have  him  smell  a  capsule  of 
aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia.  Next  make  him  vomit.  REST  is 
the  chief  medicine.  He  must  be  treated  as  a  stretcher  patient 
and  sent  to  hospital  as  soon  as  possible. 

Masks  should  be  inspected  in  the  prescribed  manner,  very  care¬ 
fully. 

Carbon  monoxide  is  not  used  directly  in  attacks,  but  has 
caused  many  casualties.  It  attacks  the  blood  corpuscles  and  they 
no  longer  carry  oxygen.  It  is  a  very  light  gas  —  lighter  than 
air  —  so  cannot  be  used  as  a  cloud  gas.  Cannot  be  easily  liquified, 
so  cannot  be  used  in  gas  shells.  No  respirators  protect  against 
this  gas.  Gas  forms  when  carbon  burns  in  very  little  air,  in  con¬ 
fined  space.  When  any  high  explosive  bursts  in  a  confined  place, 
carbon  monoxide  is  formed.  As  a  protection  from  this  gas  Salvus 
Sets  are  issued  to  machine  gunners  and  some  batteries.  A  salvus 
set  cuts  a  man  off  entirely  from  the  outside  air.  Consists  of  a 
cylinder  of  oxygen  opening  into  bag  of  waterproof  material,  from 
which  issues  a  tube  leading  to  mouthpiece. 

If  a  man  gets  gassed  by  CO,  artificial  respiration  is  the 
only  thing  of  any  use.  This  is  the  only  case  in  which  artificial 
respiration  is  used  in  gas  cases. 

Smoke  warfare  has  been  increasing  in  the  last  three  or  four 
months.  Smoke  is  used  of  various  colors,  fired  from  all  kinds 
of  guns,  trench  mortars,  bombs  and  stokes  guns.  There  are  two 
kinds:  1.  Type  S  —  ignited  by  fuse;  2.  P.  bombs  —  filled  with 
red  phosphorous  and  exploded  by  detonator.  Uses  of  smoke: 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 


33 


1.  Chlorine  gas  cloud  attack,  combined  with  smoke,  now  em¬ 
ployed  a  great  deal.  Saves  a  great  deal  of  chlorine.  Helps  to 
lower  enemy’s  morale. 

2.  Assume  that  we  are  to  concentrate  troops  at  one  point.  To 
keep  enemy  from  learning  this,  we  screen  the  concentration  by 
smoke  for  miles  on  either  side. 

3.  In  actual  attack,  nearly  always,  infantry  advance  is  screened 
by  smoke. 

4.  Smoke  used  for  screening  positions  from  aeroplanes. 

5.  Some  barage  placed  on  flank  during  a  retirement  so  as  to 
prevent  exposure  to  hostile  fire. 

Gas  Shells. —  Gas  shells  are  ordinary  shells  from  which  the 
greater  part  of  explosive  has  been  taken  and  replaced  by  a  poison¬ 
ous  liquid,  which,  when  the  shell  bursts,  turns  into  a  poisonous 
vapor  or  gas,  and  being  heavy,  hangs  about  the  place  where  the 
shell  bursts.  In  some  cases,  a  lead  container  has  to  be  used  for 
the  liquid,  but  in  most  cases  the  liquid  is  poured  into  the  shell. 
Only  enough  explosive  is  used  to  burst  the  shell  and  set  the 
gas  free. 

Gas  shells  were  first  used  by  the  Germans  in  October,  1915, 
and  the  Allies  began  to  use  them  shortly  afterwards.  The  first 
gas  shells  were  fired  indiscriminately  and  did  little  damage: 
1.  On  account  of  small  bursting  charge  they  make  a  very  small 
explosion.  2.  Having  such  a  great  deal  of  liquid  in  them,  a  very 
curious,  wobbly  sound  is  produced  as  they  go  through  the  air. 
3.  The  shell  on  bursting,  produces  a  whitish  cloud,  which  hangs 
over  the  place  of  bursting. 

By  above  characteristics  gas  shells  were  recognized. 


Nature 

Allies. 

75mm.  (Trench). 

4.5  inch  (Howitzer). 

4.7  inch  (Field  Gun). 

00  Pounder. 

Livens  Projector  (new  gun 
like  Trench  Mortar). 

With  above  guns  gas  shells 
five  miles. 


of  Armament. 

German. 

15  cm.  Howitzer. 

10.5  cm.  Light  Howitzer. 

7.7  cm.  Field  Gun. 
Minenwerfers  ( Trench  Mor¬ 

tars) . 

can  be  thrown  anywhere  within 


9 


34 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 


Gas  shells  are  divided  into  four  main  divisions,  according  to 
chemicals  inside. 

1.  Asphyxiants. —  Attack  lungs,  causing  death  by  suffocation, 
01,  Phosgene,  K  substance. 

2.  Paralysants. — Attack  nerve  centers.  Prussic  acid  (usually 
mixed  with  other  poisons  of  like  nature). 

3.  Lachrymatory. — Attacks  eyes,  causing  intense  pain  and  tre¬ 
mendous  flow  of  tears.  From  1  in  a  million  to  1  in  five  million 
knocks  a  man  out.  Has  no  permanent  ill  effect.  Germans  use 
benzyl  bromide. 

4.  “Mustard  Gas.” — Only  used  since  July,  1917,  by  Germans. 
This  shell  contains  heavy  liquid  which  does  not  evaporate  easily 
and  affects  the  skin,  forming  ulcers,  sores,  etc.  Affects  especially 
the  tender  parts  of  the  body.  This  gas  hangs  low  and  may  be 
picked  up  by  anyone  by  touching  dirt  near  the  place  of  bursting. 
This  gas  causes  a  loss  of  the  sense  of  smell  for  other  gases 
temporarily. 

Action  is  on  eyes,  causing  intense  pain  and  running  of  pus 
for  three  months,  and  sometimes  permanent  blindness.  If  this 
gets  on  hands,  face  or  between  the  legs,  it  causes  nasty  sores 
which  are  incurable. 

Sometimes  the  officers  wore  the  mask  in  the  alert  position, 
not  putting  mask  entirely  over  the  face,  but  inserting  the  mouth¬ 
piece  and  fastening  the  nose-clip.  This  has  been  discontinued  as 

the  Germans  soon  discovered  this  fact.  Do  not  touch  the  eves 

«< 

with  the  hands. 

All  gas  shells  are  painted  grey  in  color  with  identification 
marks  painted  on. 


Marks  on  Shells. 

Shells  are  painted  light  grey,  with  various  markings,  according 
to  the  gases  they  contain. 

Asphyxiant  Shells. —  Grey  and  light  grey  marks. 

Lachrymatory  Shells. —  Grey  and  black  band. 

All  shells  are  marked. 

Gas  shells  are  used  in  the  following  ways:  1.  To  prevent  con¬ 
centration  of  troops,  supplies,  etc.,  back  of  the  lines.  2.  Used  for 
counter-battery  work.  3.  Used  for  lowering  morale  of  opposing 
troops. 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN.  35 

Lachrymator  shells  are  used  against  a  position  which  you 
desire  to  deny  the  enemy  and  do  not  wish  to  occupy  yourself. 

Asphyxiants  and  other  gases  are  used  against  positions  which 
you  desire  to  deny  the  enemy  and  do  wish  to  occupy  yourself. 

Alarms  for  Gas  Shells.- —  Success  of  gas  shells  is  due  to  sur¬ 
prise.  They  are  mixed  with  other  shells,  so  men  must  always 
he  on  the  lookout  for  them  whenever  there  is  a  bombardment. 
Local  alarms  are  used  for  gas  shells.  Alarm  may  be  given  by 
shouting  Gas  Shells  or  by  using  a  rattle,  depending  upon  prox¬ 
imity  of  shell. 

For  Gas  shells  the  wind  must  be  under  5  m.p.li.  Fog  or  gentle 
rain  is  very  good  for  these  attacks.  Objective  of  attack  usually 
woods,  bushes,  or  low  ground.  Heavy  rain,  a  high  wind  or  sun 
shining  and  barometer  low  are  very  unsuitable  conditions. 

Men  should  be  trained  to  get  masks  on  in  7  seconds  from  the 
slung  position  and  6  seconds  from  the  alert  position. 

Time  in  seconds  for  gas  cloud  to  reach  us  from  enemy’s 
trenches : 

Distance  in  yards  x  2 

m.p.li. 

PART  3.—  PRELIMINARY  DRILLS  WITH  BOX  RESPIRATORS. 

20.  Practice  “  A.” —  Adjustment  of  the  Box  Respirator  in  the 
“  Alert  ’’  Position. —  Hang  the  box  respirator  round  the  neck  with 
the  press  buttons  next  the  body.  With  the  right  hand  seize  the 
satchel  by  the  leather  tab,  with  the  left  hand  seize  the  sling  by 
the  brass  button  and  clip  this  into  the  leather  tab.  Undo  the 
press  buttons,  closing  the  satchel. 

The  length  of  whipcord  will  then  be  withdrawn  from  the  right- 
hand  compartment,  passed  through  the  ring  on  the  right  of  the 
satchel  and  carried  round  the  waist  to  the  ring  on  the  left,  where 
it  is  fastened.  The  press  buttons  closing  the  satchel  will  be 
left  undone,  but  the  flap  will  be  put  in  position  to  keep  the 
respirator  from  wet. 

Practice  “  B.” —  Drill  “  by  numbers  ”  To  Obtain  Correct  Adjust¬ 
ment  of  the  Box  Respirator. —  Note. —  This  drill  is  to  be  carried 
out  alternately  with  one  “  judging  the  time,”  i.  e.,  as  quick  adjust¬ 
ment  as  possible.  It  is  the  most  important  and  complete  adjust¬ 
ment  must  be  obtained  by  all  ranks  in  SIX  SECONDS. 


36 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 


Adjust  tlie  respirator  in  the  alert  position  with  satchel  covered 
but  not  buttoned. 

1.  On  the  command  “One”  place  the  left  hand  on  the  left  cheek 
and  knock  off  steel  helmet  on  to  left  wrist  from  behind  with  the 
right  hand,  press  down  both  thumbs  between  the  satchel  and  the 
body  and  open  the  satchel  flap.  Immediately  seize  the  mask  with 
the  right  hand,  the  metal  elbow  tube  just  outside  the  mask  being 
in  the  palm  of  the  hand  and  the  thumb  and  first  finger  grasping 
the  wire  frame  of  the  nose  clip. 

2.  On  the  command  “  Two  ”  bring  the  mask  smartly  out  of 
the  satchel  and  hold  it  in  both  hands  with  all  the  fingers  outside 
found  the  binding  and  the  two  thumbs  inside,  pointing  inwards 
and  upwards  under  the  elastic.  At  the  same  time  throw  the  chin 
well  forward  ready  to  enter  the  mask  opposite  the  nose  clip. 

3.  On  the  command  “  Three  ”  bring  the  mask  forward,  digging 
the  chin  into  it  and  with  the  same  motion  bringing  the  elastic 
bands  back  over  the  crown  of  the  head  to  the  full  extent  of  the 
retaining  tape,  using  the  thumbs. 

4.  On  the  command  “  Four  ”  seize  the  metal  elbow  tube  outside 
the  mask,  thumb  on  the  right,  fingers  on  the  left  —  all  pointing 
towards  the  face.  Push  the  rubber  mouthpiece  well  into  the 
mouth  and  pull  it  forward  until  the  rim  of  the  mouthpiece  lies 
between  the  teeth  and  the  lips  and  the  two  rubber  grips  are  held 
by  the  teeth. 

5.  On  the  command  “Five”  adjust  the  nose-clip  to  the  nose, 
using  the  thumb  and  first  three  fingers  of  the  right  hand.  Run 
the  fingers  round  the  mask  on  either  side  of  the  face  to  make 
sure  that  the  edges  are  not  folded  over.  Correct  any  faults  in 
adjustment.  Come  smartly  to  attention. 

Practice  “  C.” —  To  adjust  Box  Respirators  when  carried  over 
the  shoulder  and  not  in  Alert  Position. —  Sling  the  satchel  round 
so  that  it  hangs  in  front  of  the  body.  Undo  the  press  buttons 
and  adjust  the  mask  as  in  Practice  “  B,”  allowing  the  satchel  to 
hang  by  the  rubber  tube. 

After  the  nose-clip  is  put  on,  at  once  proceed  to  adjust  the 
satchel  in  the  alert  position,  as  in  Practice  “  A.”  Standard  test  7 
seconds. 

Practice  “  D.” — Drill  to  teach  cleaning  of  eyepieces. —  On  the 

command  “  Clean  Eyepieces  ”  the  right  eyepiece  will  be  gripped 
between  the  thumb  and  the  first  finger  of  the  left  hand.  The 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 


37 


first  finger  of  the  right  hand  will  then  be  pushed  gently  into  the 
fold  of  the  mask  behind  the  right  eyepiece  which  will  be  cleaned 
with  a  gentle  circular  motion. 

The  left  eyepiece  will  be  cleaned  in  a  similar  way. 

Practice  “  E.” —  Drill  to  teach  method  of  giving  orders. —  It  is 
first  explained  to  a  squad  that  the  nose-clip  must  not  be  re¬ 
moved  to  talk  and  that  before  each  sentence  is  spoken  a  long 
breath  must  be  taken  and  the  mouthpiece  removed  sideways  from 
the  mouth  by  turning  th°  metal  tube  outside  the  mask  to  one 
side.  After  speaking,  the  mouthpiece  is  replaced. 

The  squad  should  then  be  numbered  off,  extended  to  four 
paces,  and  orders  passed  along  the  line. 

Officers  and  N.C.O’s.  will  receive  special  care  in  Practice  “  E.” 
Practice  “  F.” —  Drill  to  teach  method  of  clearing  mask  from 
gas  which  may  have  leaked  in  and  is  affecting  the  eyes. —  Press 
the  mask  close  to  the  face,  forcing  out  foul  air  round  the  sides 
and  then  fill  again  with  fresh  air  from  the  lungs  by  blowing  out 
round  the  mouthpiece. 

Practice  “  G.” —  Drill  to  teach  method  of  testing  whether  trench 
or  dug-out  is  free  from  gas. —  With  the  right  hand  open  the  face- 
piece  away  from  the  right  cheek,  then  loosen  the  nose-clip  on  the 
nose  and  smell  gently  (do  not  take  a  breath).  If  gas  is  smelt, 
the  nose  clip  and  mask  are  replaced.  Then  as  in  Drill  “  F.” 

If  no  gas  is  smelt,  left  hand  removed  from  nose-clip  and  placed 
under  face -piece  on  left  cheek.  Mask  then  removed  with  both 
hands. 

Practice  “  H.” — Ordinary  infantry  drill  will  be  carried  out 
while  wearing  the  mask.  This  will  include  doubling  for  at  least 
200  yards  at  a  time.  Marching  order  will  be  worn.  Musketry 
and  bombing  instruction  and  training  of  specialists  (including 
artillery,  machine  gunners,  signallers,  medical  corps)  will  also  be 
carried  out. 

21.  Directions  for  use  of  Box  Respirators. —  At  ordinary  times, 
the  haversack  containing  the  Box  Respirator  is  to  be  carried 
slung  over  the  right  shoulder,  WITH  THE  FLAP  FASTENERS 
NEXT  THE  BODY. 

(A)  To  Change  to  the  Gas  Alert  Position: 

(1)  Pass  the  left  arm  backwards  through  the  sling  so  that  the 
haversack  hangs  in  front  of  the  body. 


38 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 


(2)  Raise  the  haversack  on  to  the  chest  by  pulling  the  sling 
with  the  left  hand  until  the  brass  stud  on  the  sling  is  low 
enough  to  button  on  to  the  leather  tab  on  the  left  side  of  the 
haversack. 

(3)  Take  the  coil  of  whip  cord  out  of  the  haversack,  pass  it 
through  the  ring  pointing  to  the  right  of  the  haversack,  round, 
the  body,  and  tic  it  firmly  to  the  ring  pointing  to  the  left  of  the 
haversack. 

(4)  Unbutton  the  snap  fasteners,  but  keep  the  flap  closed 
towards  the  body  to  protect  the  respirator  from  wet. 

(B)  On  the  Sounding  of  the  Gas  Alarm: 

(1)  Open  the  haversack  by  pulling  the  cover  forward,  and 
grip  the  mask  with  the  right  hand. 

(2)  Take  the  mask  out  of  the  satchel  and  seize  it  with  both 
hands,  the  fingers  gripping  the  edge  of  the  mask  and  both  thumbs 
pointing  inwards  and  upwards  UNDER,  the  elastic.  Throw  the 
chin  well  forward  ready  to  enter  the  mask. 

(3)  Push  the  chin  well  into  the  mask  and  at  the  same  time 
draw  the  elastics  over  the  head  AS  FAR  AS  THEY  WILL  GO, 
i.  e.,  till  the  central  tape  is  tight. 

(4)  Holding  the  metal  mouth  tube  in  the  right  hand  outside 
the  mask,  push  the  rubber  mouthpiece  well  into  the  mouth  and 
draw  it  forward  so  that  the  rubber  flange  is  between  the  teeth 
and  the  lips,  and  grip  the  two  small  rubber  projections  with  the 
teeth.  Then  start  breathing  in  and  out  through  the  tube. 

(5)  Open  the  nose  clip  by  pinching  from  the  outside  the  cir¬ 
cular  wire  spring  below  the  goggles;  push  the  clip  buttons  on 
to  the  lower  part  of  the  nose  and  release  the  spring,  making 
sure  that  the  nostrils  are  closed. 

(6)  Complete  the  fitting  of  the  mask  by  pulling  it  well  on 
over  the  jaw  and  by  smoothing  the  edge  all  around  the  face. 

(7)  Do  not  attempt  to  speak  while  wearing' the  respirator  ex¬ 
cept  in  case  of  necessity. 

(8)  If  it  is  necessary  to  speak,  breathe  in  deeply,  grasp  the 
metal  tube  outside  the  mask  and  carefully  remove  the  mouth¬ 
piece  from  between  the  lips  —  care  being  taken  not  to  move  the 
nose-clip. 

(9)  After  speaking,  immediately  replace  the  mouthpiece  and 
make  certain  that  the  nose-clip  is  properly  adjusted. 


SCHEDULE  FOR  TRAINING  ENLISTED  MEN. 


39 


(10)  If  the  eye-pieces  become  dull  they  can  be  cleaned  by 
inserting  the  forefinger  into  the  pockets  alongside  the  goggles 
and  wiping  the  inside  of  the  windows.  The  eye-piece  is  held 
with  the  other  hand  while  this  is  being  done. 

(11)  If  the  nose-clip  slips  off  the  nose,  replace  it  at  once. 

(12)  After  use,  carefully  dry  the  mouthpiece  and  eye  rims 
from  the  inside  and  also  inside  surface  of  the  mask,  so  as  to 
remove  the  condensed  moisture  resulting  from  the  breath. 

TO  INSPECT  RESPIRATORS. 

22.  Masks  are  slung,  boxes  opened  and  respirators  taken  out. 

Respirators  proper  are  inspected  first: 

1.  Inlet  valve. 

2.  Box  of  chemicals. 

3.  Shake  well  before  using. 

4.  Connections. 

5.  Tube, —  flexible  —  no  holes  and  in  good  order. 

6.  Elbow  piece  firmly  attached. 

7.  Rubber  outlet  valve. 

8.  Elbow  tube  to  face. 

9.  Mouth  piece. 

10.  Nose  piece —  not  too  loose,  good  grip. 

11.  Eye  piece,  fabric  is  caught  up. 

12.  Face  piece  itself. 

13.  Elastic,  and  retaining  tape. 

14.  Test  both  valves. 

15.  Haversack  — •  every  thing  present. 

For  the  above  inspection  the  usual  commands  of  “  Open  ranks.” 


Copy  right  Underwood  &  Underwood,  N.  Y. 


PHOTO  SHOWING 


FRENCH  RETIRING 
ATTACK. 


BEFORE  GERMAN  GAS 


Most  unusual  and  striking  photograph  taken  by  a  daring  photog¬ 
rapher  on  the  French  fighting  front.  The  picture  shows  a  wave  of 
German  poison  gas  coming  directly  for  the  French  lines.  The  soldiers 
are  shown  falling  back  towards  the  second  line  trenches  to  allow  the 
deadly  gas  to  pass  on.  In  the  foregound  is  a  French  soldier  watching 
the  movement  from  one  of  the  communication  trenches. 


V 

■  .* 


CHAPTER  II. 

LECTURE  ON  GAS  FOR  OFFICERS. 

Introduction. 

23.  Gas  in  warfare  is  not  an  entirely  modern  invention  but  is 
simply  another  reversion  to  primitive  methods  many  examples 
of  which  can  be  found  in  the  present  conflict.  Ancient  history 
is  replete  with  mention  of  “  suffocating  smoke,”  “  stink-pots,” 
“  flaming  pitch  ”  and  “  burning  oil,”  the  forerunners  of  our 
modern  gas  and  liquid  fire.  We  have  simply  improved  the 
methods.  Even  the  ancient  catapult  has  found  its  place  in 
modern  war  to  throw  grenades  and  bombs.  No  mention  has  been 
made  of  the  “  crossbow  ”  but,  if  it  has  not  already  appeared  on 
the  European  battlefields  it  no  doubt  will  for  it  would  be  an 
admirable  weapon  for  throwing  small  grenades;  cheap  to  oper¬ 
ate,  silent,  light  in  weight  and  more  accurate  than  the  hand. 

The  use  of  poisoned  gas  in  the  present  war,  like  all  the  cruel 
and  less  chivalrous  forms  of  fighting,  was  introduced  by  the 
Germans,  the  first  attack  being  at  Ypres  on  April  22nd,  1915. 
It  caught  the  allied  forces  unprepared,  killing  and  poisoning  large 
numbers. 

Organization  and  Instruction. 

24.  The  present  English  field  system  consists  of  a  complete 
organization  at  the  head  of  which  is  a  Chief  Chemical  Adviser. 
Each  command  has  a  Chemical  Adviser,  each  Division  a  Division 
Gas  Officer,  each  Brigade  a  Bde.G..O.,  each  Battalion  a  B.G.O. 
Many  non-commissioned  officers  have  qualified  for  special  work 
in  this  branch.  Each  Battalion  should  have  in  addition  to  its 
B.G.O.  four  N.C.O’s.  who  have  qualified  and  oiie  or  two  N.C.O’s. 
of  the  Medical  Corps.  Frequent  changes  are  made  in  protective 
methods  and  it  is  the  business  of  this  organization  to  carry  out 
these  changes  in  the  units  to  which  they  are  attached. 

The  French  do  not  have  a  separate  field  organization.  Each 
division  has  a  chemist  who  analyzes  the  gases  used  by  the 
Germans,  but  beyond  this  the  details  are  looked  after  mostly  by 
officers  of  the  medical  corps. 

In  both  armies  samples  of  every  attack  are  taken  and  analyzed 
to  detect  the  presence  of  any  new  gas.  These  samples  are 
obtained  by  breaking  the  seal  of  a  vacuum  bottle,  or  by  empty- 


42 


LECTURE  ON  GAS  FOR  OFFICERS. 


mg  water  out  of  a  bottle  while  the  attack  is  on,  then  sealing  it 
and  forwarding  to  the  division  chemist. 

Gas  as  a  weapon  has  long  passed  the  experimental  stage  and 
is  now  an  established  method  of  offense.  Consequently  all 
armies  have  recognized  the  necessity  of  instruction  and  frequent 
drill  in  defensive  tactics.  It  is  just  as  important  for  men  to 
know  how  to  adjust  masks  and  helmets  in  seven  seconds  as  it  is 
to  shoot  with  the  rifle.  A  man  may  escape  all  kinds  of  bullets 
and  bayonets  but  without  some  method  of  filtering  the  air  that 
he  breathes  he  hasn’t  one  chance  in  a  million  of  escaping  gas. 

Men  should  be  subjected  to  gas  so  they  will  appreciate  the 
protection  of  the  anti-gas  appliances.  This  is  very  effectively 
done  by  subjecting  them  to  lachrymal  gas  with  helmets  or  masks 
and  then  without.  This  may  be  done  without  actual  casualty 
but  serves  to  give  men  a  very  distinct  and  lasting  impression  of 
the  difference  between  meeting  gas  with  a  mask  and  without  it. 
Men  should  also  have  an  opportunity  to  see  a  gas  cloud  so  they 
may  know  what  it  looks  like  and  how  it  rolls  along.  To  see  a 
gas  cloud  for  the  first  time  under  battle  conditions  must  be 
rather  terrifying.  They  should  also  be  able  to  distinguish  be¬ 
tween  the  burst  of  a  gas  shell  and  the  ordinary  shell. 

Forms  of  Gas  Attack. 

25.  There  are  various  methods  of  gas  attacks: 

a.  Emanation. 

b.  Cloud  or  mist. 

c.  Chemical  shells. 

1.  Emanation.  This  is  the  least  important  method  and  con¬ 
sists  of  scattering  chemicals  about  trenches  which  are  to  be 
deserted.  This  chemical  when  brought  in  contact  with  moisture 
or  stirred  up  by  the  digging  of  occupying  troops  produces  a 
poisonous  gas. 

2.  Cloud  or  mist.  This  method  consists  of  bringing  gas  up  to 
the  front  line  in  cylinders  or  tanks  under  heavy  pressure  and 
releasing  it  when  the  wind  is  in  a  favorable  direction  for  carry¬ 
ing  it  over  enemy  trenches.  If  it  is  a  clear  dry  day  the  gas 
rolls  along  close  to  the  ground,  a  faint  green  mist  gradually 
growing  thinner  and  less  deadly  as  it  advances  and  dissipates. 
If  the  day  is  damp  the  gas,  which  has  a  strong  affinity  for 
moisture,  takes  on  the  appearance  of  a  greenish  yellow  cloud 


LECTURE  ON  GAS  FOR  OFFICERS.  43 

bank.  It  is  often  harmless  at  200  yards  but  again  it  lias  been 
fatal  after  traveling  two  miles. 

3.  Chemical  shells.  While  the  amount  of  gas  in  this  method 
is  small  in  comparison  with  the  cloud  attack  it  is  nevertheless 
very  dangerous  because  there  is  no  warning.  In  cloud  attacks, 
the  very  direction  of  the  wind  is  a  warning  but  the  use  of  shells 
is  independent  of  wind.  This  method  is  used  against  the  artillery 
which  is  usually  too  far  back  to  be  affected  by  cloud  attacks  ex¬ 
cept  under  exceptionally  favorable  circumstances. 

The  average  shell  contains  about  five  pounds  of  gas  in  liquid 
form  which  expands  when  released  by  the  explosive  charge,  in 
about  the  same  ratio  as  water  to  steam.  A  very  heavy  attack 
with  these  shells  at  one  point  produces  the  same  effect  as  a 
cloud  attack,  but  with  the  added  element  of  surprise.  This  form 
of  attack  is  becoming  more  popular  with  both  contestants  than 
the  cloud  attack. 

Kinds  of  Gas. 

26.  There  are  a  great  many  kinds  of  gas.  Old  ones  are  becom¬ 
ing  obsolete  and  new  ones  are  being  evolved  every  day. 

The  chemical  used  for  Emanation  was  Calcium  Arsenide.  When 
brought  in  contact  with  moisture  it  generates  “  Arsene  ”  a  gas  of 
faint  garlic  odor.  It  is  not  much  used  as  it  does  not  generate  in 
large  enough  quantities  to  be  particularly  dangerous. 

Chlorine,  Bromine  and  Phosgene  have  been  the  chief  chemicals 
used  in  the  cloud  attacks.  The  latter  (Carbonal  Chloral)  is  a 
composition  of  carbonic  acid  and  chlorine. 

Methyl  Sulphate  and  Pelite  are  two  of  the  poisonous  gases 
used  in  shells.  The  German  tear  shells  are  of  two  kinds;  one 
known  as  “  A  ”  shells  which  contain  Bromaceteone  and  the  “  T  ” 
shells  containing  Xylylbromide. 

Other  gases  are  hydrogen  sulphide,  formol  and  anhydrous 
compounds  of  nitrogen. 

Prussic  Acid  (hydrocyanic  acid)  lias  evidently  not  been  used 
much  as  very  little  mention  of  it  has  been  made  in  reports  from 
the  front. 

Effects  of  Gas. 

27.  Xot.  all  gases  are  intended  to  kill.  Some  like  the  German 
“  A  ”  and  “  T  ”  shells  are  Intended  to  temporarily  incapacitate 
the  enemy  while  a  charge  is  being  made  for  the  purpose  of  taking 
prisoners  or  finishing  the  job  with  bombs  or  bayonets. 


44 


LECTURE  ON  GAS  FOR  OFFICERS. 


The  Bromacetone  and  Xylylbromide  of  these  German  shells  are 
classed  as  lachrymal  gases  because  they  directly  affect  the 
lachrymal  or  tear  glands  of  the  eye  causing  a  copious  secretion 
of  tears  and  smarting  of  the  eye  which  temporarily  blinds  the 
enemy.  There  is  a  very  strong  tendency  to  rub  the  eyes  but 
this  should  be  avoided  as  it  only  produces  a  more  serious 
inflammation. 

The  effect  of  Chlorine  and  Bromine  depend  on  the  amount  of 
gas  in  the  atmosphere.  Both  kill  by  suffocation  when  in  sufficient 
quantities.  One  part  of  Chlorine  to  one  thousand  parts  of  air 
will  cause  paralysis  of  the  glottis  (the  valve  at  the  opening  of 
the  windpipe)  and  men  will  tear  their  throats  open  with  their 
lingers  in  their  efforts  to  get  air.  When  the  mixture  is  1-5000 
death  is  caused  by  a  very  acute  inflammation  of  the  lung  struc¬ 
ture.  The  victim  suffers  for  some  time  finally  dying  in  agony 
after  a  frothy  hemmorrhage  of  the  lungs.  1-50000  is  less  violent 
but  causes  death  in  a  few  days  by  gangrene  of  the  lungs. 
Bromine  effects  are  identical  but  more  violent. 

Phosgene  gives  a  different  effect  but  the  final  result  is  the 
same, —  death.  Men  attacked  by  Phosgene  feel  no  serious  effects 
for  hours  and  continue  about  their  duties  only  to  suddenly  sink 
into  a  fatal  collapse  with  all  the  symptoms  of  heart  failure. 
Early  in  the  war  the  French  losses  were  very  heavy  from  this 
gas.  The  English  warned  of  its  probable  use  had  made  prepara¬ 
tions  to  fight  it  and  suffered  few  losses. 

The  anhydrides  when  they  come  in  contact  with  the  moisture 
of  the  lungs,  like  phosgene,  form  acids  corresponding  to  their 
bases,  with  similar  effects. 

The  effects  of  Prussic  acid  gas  are  entirely  different  from  the 
other  gases.  It  acts  directly  on  the  nervous  system,  in  dilute 
form  produces  dizziness,  headache,  pains  in  chest,  and  difficult 
breathing,  coma  and  sometimes  convulsions  preceding  the  end. 
In  concentrated  attacks  the  victim  becomes  unconscious,  and  death 
follows  almost  immediately. 

It  would  not  be  proper  to  go  into  details  regarding  the  new 
gases  and  chemicals  of  the  Allies  but  suffice  it  to  say  that  they 
have  a  “weeper”  (tear  bomb)  that  “out  weeps”  anything  the 
Germans  have  produced.  This  bomb  is  known  to  “  Tommy  ”  as 
the  “  S.  K.”  from  the  fact  that  it  was  originally  manufactured  at 
South  Kensington.  They  also  have  another  chemical  bomb  which 


LECTURE  ON  GAS  FOR  OFFICERS.  45 

poisons  everything  within  the  radius  of  its  explosion  and  against 
which  there  is  no  complete  protection. 

Gas  Masks. 

28.  When  the  allied  forces  were  caught  in  the  first  gas  attacks, 
a  few  men  recognized  the  Chlorine  gas.  Knowing  its  affinity  for 
moisture  and  the  neutralizing  effects  of  certain  excretions  of  the 
body  they  wet  their  handkerchiefs,  coat  sleeves  and  even  the 
sandbag  revetments,  sucking  air  through  these  improvised  filters 
and  thereby  cheating  the  gas  of  thousands  of  victims. 

To-day  the  accepted  methods  of  defense  are  the  gas  mask  or 
helmet  and  the  respirator.  There  are  various  kinds  of  these 
appliances  but  they  may  all  be  divided  into  two  types  —  the 
P.  H.  Helmet  and  the  Box  Respirator.  A  third  consisting  of 
goggles  with  heavy  soft  rubber  rings  fitting  closely  around  the 
eyes  was  used  as  a  protection  against  lachrymal  gas  but  this 
protection  is  now  incorporated  in  the  P.  H.  Helmet  and  Respi¬ 
rator. 

The  P.  H.  Helmet  consists  of  a  double  flannelette  bag  with  two 
eye  pieces  and  a  mouth  piece  consisting  of  a  hard  tube  on  the 
inside  and  a  flat  piece  of  rubber  on  the  outside  through  which 
the  breath  can  be  exhaled  but  which  collapses  if  attempt  is  made 
lo  inhale  through  it.  The  flannelette  is  impregnated  with  solu¬ 
tions  of  Carbolic  Acid  and  Phenol,  Caustic  Soda,  Hexamine  and 
Glycerine.  The  Carbolic  Acid  and  Phenol  which  produces  a  rather 
annoying  tickle  in  the  throat  is  the  neutralizing  agent  for  the 
Chlorine  Gas.  The  Caustic  Soda  is  a  protection  against  Prussic 
Acid.  The  Germans  had  not  used  this  acid  at  the  time  this 
alkali  was  first  used  in  the  helmets.  This  alkali  also  neutralizes 
the  acid  producing  gases.  Hexamine,  a  chemical  discovered  by  a 
Russian  chemist,  takes  out  the  Phosgene.  The  Allies  were  warned 
of  an  impending  attack  of  this  gas  and  the  English  immediately 
adopted  this  chemical.  The  French  did  not  use  it  and  lost  heavily 
in  the  first  attacks.  German  gas  helmets  captured  a  few  weeks 
later  were  found  also  impregnated  with  Hexamine,  which  they 
had  evidently  discovered  in  the  helmets  of  some  English  prisoners. 
The  Glycerine  is  used  to  hold  the  chemical  solutions  and  prevent 
their  evaporation.  The  helmet  is  carried  in  a  rubberized  pouch. 
Signal  stations,  command  posts,  dressing  stations  and  dugouts  for 
troops  in  the  support  line  when  within  the  zone  of  gas  attacks, 


45 


LECTURE  ON  GAS  FOR  OFFICERS. 


are  sometimes  provided  with  blanket  curtains  impregnated  with 
these  chemicals,  although  usually  these  curtains  are  simply  dipped 
in  water  which  serves  as  a  door  to  keep  out  the  gas. 

The  French  type  anti-gas  appliance  is  a  true  mask.  It  is  made 
up  of  several  layers  of  gauze,  each  saturated  with  chemical  and 
is  molded  to  fit  under  the  chin,  up  the  sides  of  face  and  across  the 
forehead.  Each  man  must  be  fitted  and  must  retain  his  own 
mask.  The  goggles  in  these  masks  are  made  of  cellulose  acetate 
which  will  not  break  or  fog  from  the  breath,  and  is  also  equipped 
with  a  water-proof  apron  which  protects  the  mask  from  rain. 
The  mask  is  held  in  place  by  heavy  elastic  bands  around  the 
head,  and  also  has  a  loop  of  tape  by  which  it  can  be  suspended 
from  the  neck  in  “  Gas  Alert.”  There  is  also  a  water-proof 
pouch  with  tape  sling  for  carrying  over  shoulder  and  this  in  turn 
can  be  carried  in  a  metal  container  with  short  leather  sling  which 
attaches  to  belt. 

An  American  has  made  a  remarkable  discovery  in  regard  to  the 
goggles  for  gas  masks.  He  has  found  that  two  pieces  of  glass 
cemented  together  will  not  crack  or  break.  In  fact  it  is  possible 
to  drill  a  piece  of  glass  so  constructed  with  an  ordinary  steel 
drill. 

The  Box  Respirator  (small  type)  consists  of  a  small  canvas 
haversack,  called  a  satchel,  of  two  compartments,  one  of  which 
contains  the  metal  filter  with  its  charge  of  chemicals;  the  other, 
the  mask,  called  the  facepiece,  is  made  of  rubberized  material 
with  mica  eyepieces,  a  nose  clip,  a  rubber  mouthpiece  shaped  to 
be  gripped  in  the  teeth  and  terminating  on  the  outside  in  a  flat 
rubber  valve  similar  to  that  on  the  P.  H.  Helmet.  Connecting 
the  mask  and  the  filter  is  a  short  length  of  non-collapsible  tube. 
The  mask  fits  the  face  closely  and  is  held  in  place  by  broad 
elastic  bands  passing  around  the  head.  On  the  right  side  of  the 
satchel  is  a  small  button  and  in  the  sling  wTiich  normally  passes 
over  the  left  shoulder  is  a  button  hole  so  that  the  satchel  can 
be  carried  on  the  chest  by  passing  the  sling  about  the  neck  and 
hooking  on  button.  This  is  known  as  the  “alert  ”  position. 
There  is  also  supplied  a  piece  of  whipcord  which  can  be  passed 
through  rings  on  sides  of  satchel  and  around  the  body  to  prevent 
satchel  being  displaced  while  in  action.  The  French  have  a  Box 
Respirator  of  this  same  type  but  which  is  much  larger,  the  box 
being  carried  on  the  back. 


LECTURE  ON  GAS  FOR  OFFICERS. 


47 


Equipment  of  Men. 

29.  The  Box  Respirator  is  now  considered  the  chief  means  of 
defense  with  the  P.  H.  Helmet  or  Mask  as  an  auxiliary,  in  case 
the  Respirator  should  be  injured.  Each  man  is  therefore  supplied 
with  both  types.  The  Box  Respirator  is  slung  on  the  right  side, 
the  strap  passing  over  the  left  shoulder.  The  P.  H.  Helmet  is 
slung  from  the  left  shoulder  and  hangs  perpendicularly  downward, 
the  sling  passing  under  the  belt.  BOTH  APPLIANCES  MUSI1 
BE  OUTSIDE  ALL  OTHER  EQUIPMENT. 

Inspection. 

30.  One  of  the  main  causes  of  fatalities  in  gas  attacks  is  the 
use  of  faulty  helmets  or  respirators.  The  only  method  of  com¬ 
bating  this  is  by  frequent  inspections.  These  inspections  should 
normally  be  held  at  least  once  a  week,  and  during  periods  when 
conditions  are  favorable  for  a  gas  attack  there  should  be  daily 
inspections. 

The  following  instructions  are  issued  regarding  these  inspec¬ 
tions  : 

/  1 

A.  Box  Respirators: 

(a)  Box,  face-piece,  nose-clip,  mouth  piece,  eye-pieces  and  elastic 
must  be  in  good  order. 

(b)  Face-piece  must  be  firmly  attached  to  the  mouth-piece  and 
to  the  elbow  tube. 

(c)  Metal  tube  inside  mouth-piece  must  be  about  ^  inch  back 
from  the  opening  of  the  mouth-piece. 

(d)  Rubber  tube  must  be  intact  and  firmly  attached  to  the  box' 
and  elbow  tube. 

(e)  Expiratory  valve  must  be  tested  by  removing  the  box  from 
the  satchel  and  pinching  the  rubber  tube  so  as  to  prevent  inlet  of 
air,  at  the  same  time  attempting  to  draw  in  air  through  the 
mouth-piece.  It  should  not  be  possible  to  draw  in  any  air. 

(f)  See  that  air  can  be  drawn  freely  through  the  box. 

(g)  Whipcord  must  be  present  and  not  knotted. 

(h)  Any  small  perforations  in  the  face-piece  must  be  temporar¬ 
ily  repaired  by  applying  pieces  of  adhesive  plaster  from  the 
repair  outfit  to  the  perforation,  both  inside  and  Qutside  the  mask. 
The  adhesive  plaster  must  be  large  enough  to  overlap  the  hole  all 
around. 


48 


LECTURE  ON  GAS  FOR  OFFICERS. 


(i)  Replace  the  box  in  the  satchel  so  that  the  face-piece  comes 
to  the  face  without  twist  on  the  tube.  Fold  face-piece  carefully 
and  replace  in  the  satchel  so  that  the  expiratory  valve  is  not 
likely  to  crumble. 

B.  P.  H.  Helmets: 

(a)  Satchel  and  wallet  must  be  in  good  order. 

(b)  Helmet  must  be  properly  folded  with  the  valve  flat  and 
no  strain  on  the  flannelette  round  the  valve  seating. 

(c)  Joint  between  parts  of  the  valve  must  be  tight  and  should 
grip  the  flannelette.  Mouth-piece  should  be  horizonal.  Rubber 
valve  must  be  fastened  securely  to  the  metal.  Valve  must  be 
tested  by  breathing  through  it.  It  should  not  be  possible  to 
breathe  in  through  it.  The  valve  rubber  sometimes  becomes 
hard;  this  is  remedied  by  breathing  out  through  the  valve  for 
about  a  minute  at  each  inspection. 

(d)  Eye-pieces  must  be  screwed  up  tightly  from  the  inside  and 
must  grip  the  flannelette.  Screw  threads  must  not  be  crossed. 
Glasses  must  not  be  cracked  or  loose. 

(e)  There  must  not  be  the  smallest  hole  through  which  gas 
might  enter.  Particular  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  flannelette 
round  the  eye-pieces  and' valve  seating. 

(f)  If  helmets  become  so  sodden  with  water  that  it  is  impossible 
to  breathe  through  them  they  must  be  condemned. 

A  supply  of  anti-gas  stores  are  kept  in  the  trenches  such  as  fans, 
sprayers,  grease,  oil,  spare  cylinders,  extra  boxes  for  respirators 
and  small  boxes  of  chemicals. 

Stores  must  be  inspected  every  day  by  a  non-commissioned 
officer  to  be  sure  that  they  are  in  good  order. 

Materials  Required. 

24%  Lysol  (1  tablespoon  to  a  pint). 

2  Pieces  of  cloth. 

1  Small  tin  to  hold  disinfection. 

Gas  Alert. 

30.  When  conditions  of  atmosphere  and  wind  are  favorable  for 
a  gas  attack  preparations  are  made  to  meet  it.  This  is  known  as 
“  Gas  Alert.” 

On  the  warning  “  Gas  Alert,”  the  right  arm  is  passed  back  under 
Respirator  sling  and  satchel  is  hooked  so  as  to  hang  on  the  chest, 


LECTURE  ON  GAS  FOR  OFFICERS. 


49 


the  loose  end  of  sling  being  tucked  in  the  compartment  UNDER¬ 
NEATH  the  face-piece.  The  satchel  is  then  secured  to  the  body 
with  the  whipcord  and  flap  is  unbuttoned.  The  chin  strap  of  the 
steel  helmet  is  placed  over  the  back  of  the  head  so  that  the  helmet 
can  be  quickly  removed.  Men  should  look  over  their  equipment 
and  see  that  there  is  nothing  which  might  interfere  even  for  a 
fraction  of  a  second  with  the  adjustment  of  the  face-piece. 

If  a  man  is  only  equipped  with  the  P.  H.  Helmet  at  “  Gas 
Alert”  he  should  proceed  as  follows:  With  the  helmet  over  his 
head  place  the  wallet  or  container  on  the  chest  with  the  open  flap 
passed  up  under  the  front  skirt  of  the  helmet.  Pin  the  front  edge 
of  helmet  and  the  hinge  of  the  open  wallet  to  the  shirt  with  two 
safety  pins  in  such  a  manner  that  the  helmet  may  be  readily 
pulled  on  and  off  the  head  without  removing  the  pins.  Leaving 
the  pins  in  position  remove  the  helmet  and  fold  in  the  regulation 
manner.  The  matter  of  folding  is  very  important  as  on  its  cor¬ 
rectness  depends  the  efficiency  of  the  valve  and  the  quickness  with 
which  the  helmet  can  be  adjusted.  The  method  is  as  follows: 

Sides  are  folded  over  goggles,  then  crown  is  folded  down  over 
goggles.  Next  fold  on  a  line  between  goggles  and  valves,  being  sure 
that  valve  lays  flat  when  goggles  are  folded  down  o\er  it.  One 
more  fold  completes  folding  so  that  helmet  can  be  put  in  pouch  or 
carried  under  flap  of  wallet  in  alert  position. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  VALVE  LAYS  FLAT. 
If  equipped  with  French  mask  on  “  Gas  Alert  ”  it  is  only  necessary 
to  remove  mask  from  pouch  and  hang  around  neck  by  means  of 
tape  sling  provided  for  that  purpose. 

Gas  Alarm. 

31.  In  the  front  line  trenches  there  is  usually  within  reach  of 
each  sentinel  a  big  klaxon  horn  or  an  empty  shell  case  suspended 
on  a  wire.  During  daylight  hours  an  approaching  gas  cloud  can 
be  seen  through  the  periscopes.  If  the  opposing  trenches  are  close 
the  peculiar  metallic  sound  of  the  gas  cylinders  as  they  are 
brought  up  to  the  front  line  trenches  is  sometimes  carried  down 
the  wind  and  gives  warning  of  the  attack.  When  the  gas  is 
released  a  loud  hissing  noise  can  be  heard  as  it  escapes  through 
the  valves.  The  Germans  have  recently  tried  to  drown  this  noise 
by  machine  gun  fire. 

It  is  the  duty  of  one  sentinel  on  any  of  these  indications  of 
attack  to  sound  the  nearest  klaxon  or  shell  case.  The  other 


50 


LECTURE  ON  GAS  FOR  OFFICERS. 


sentinel  must  pass  tlie  word  to  dugouts,  working  parties,  dress¬ 
ing  stations,  signal  posts,  etc.,  waking  anyone  that  is  asleep  with¬ 
out  regard  for  their  feelings. 

Mask  Adjustment. 

32.  On  the  sounding  of  the  gas  alarm,  if  wearing  a  respirator, 
quickly  take  the  mask  in  both  hands,  the  lingers  along  the  edges 
of  the  mask,  the  thumbs  supporting  the  elastic.  Thrust  the  chin 
into  the  mask,  at  the  same  time  carrying  the  elastic  bands  back 
over  the  crown  of  the  head  to  the  full  extent  of  the  retaining 
tape.  Seize  the  metal  breathing  tube  outside  the  mask,  push  the 
rubber  mouth -piece  well  into  the  mouth  and  pull  forward  until 
the  rim  of  the  mouth-piece  lies  between  the  teeth  and  the  lips 
and  the  two  rubber  grips  are  held  by  the  teeth.  Next,  adjust  the 
nose-clip  to  the  nose. 

If  equipped  with  the  P.  H.  Helmet  carried  in  the  alert  position 
already  described  it  will  only  be  necessary  to  open  the  coat  and 
lean  forward  so  that  the  helmet  falls.  It  will  then  be  drawn 
over  the  head  by  both  hands  and  gripped  with  the  left  hand 
tightly  around  the  neck  beneath  the  chin.  This  is  the  “  Position 
of  Safety.”  With  the  right  hand  tuck  in  the  skirt  of  the  helmet 
on  the  right  side  from  front  to  back.  Then  the  right  hand  will 
grip  the  helmet  under  the  chin,  while  the  left  tucks  in  the  skirt 
on  that  side.  Special  care  should  be  taken  to  push  the  skirt  of 
the  helmet  down  at  the  back  of  the  neck.  Place  the  moutli-piece 
in  the  mouth  with  left  hand  and  tuck  the  skirt  inside  the  coat, 
button  the  coat  and  turn  up  the  collar.  The  complete  adjustment 
should  not  exceed  7  seconds. 

With  the  French  mask  thrust  the  chin  well  into  the  lower  part 
of  mask  and  draw  elastic  bands  over  head  to  full  extent  of  tape, 
being  careful  that  mask  fits  tightly  all  around  face. 

Gas  Attack. 

33.  During  a  gas  attack  men  should  conserve  their  breath  as 
much  as  possible.  For  this  reason  men  should  move  about  only 
as  absolutely  necessary.  No  talking  should  be  allowed  excepting 
necessary  orders  and  ‘these  should  be  given  by  signal  whenever 
possible/  A  close  watch  should  be  kept  for  men  who  are  wounded 
or  whose  Respirators  or  Helmets  may  have  been  damaged.  A 
wounded  man  will  often  tear  off  his  helmet  in  an  effort  to  get 
air.  He  should  be  forcibly  restrained  for  if  he  succeeds  he  is 


LECTURE  ON  GAS  FOR  OFFICERS. 


51 


doomed.  Should  a  Respirator  go  bad  or  be  injured  the  change  to 
the  Helmet  should  be  made  as  quickly  and  smoothly  as  possible 
WHILE  HOLDING  THE  BREATH. 

Men  must  not  remove  their  masks  or  helmets  after  an  attack 
until  ordered  to  do  so.  They  should  then  clean  and  dry  their 
Respirator  or  Helmet  and  carry  in  the  “Alert  ”  position  in  prepa¬ 
ration  for  another  attack.  Care  should  be  taken  that  no  one 
goes  into  any  shelter  or  dugout  until  it  has  been  ventilated  unless 
wearing  a  Respirator  or  Helmet.  Thi^  ventilation  is  accomplished 
by  fanning  about  the  shelter  to  produce  a  circulation  of  air.  It 
may  also  be  accomplished  by  building  a  fire. 

After  each  gas  attack  arms  and  ammunition  should  be  well 
cleaned  and  oiled,  as  the  gas  rapidly  corrodes  the  bare  metal. 

When  an  attack  is  finally  over,  in  addition  to  cleaning  the  masks 
the  mouth-pieces  should  be  disinfected  by  being  dipped  in  a 
solution  of  Cresol  or  Lysol  made  by  adding  about  a  tablespoonful 
to  a  pint  of  water. 

Drill. 

34.  In  order  to  make  gas  masks  and  helmets  of  any  practical 
value  it  is  necessary  for  men  to  learn  how  to  adjust  them  without 
any  lost  motions  and  to  carry  on  their  usual  duties  while  wearing 
them.  To  quietly  sit  through  a  gas  attack  wearing  a  helmet  is 

one  thing;  to  adjust  it  on  a  few  seconds’  warning  and  meet  a 

bayonet  attack,  throw  bombs  or  work  a  machine  gun  are  differ¬ 
ent  matters,  and  it  is  these  things  that  count,  for  the  gas  attack 
is  usually  only  a  preliminary  to  an  enemy  attack. 

For  this  reason  men  should  be  drilled  in  putting  on  the  anti- 

gas  appliances  and  also  in  all  branches  of  the  work  while  wearing 
them. 

In  marching  men  should  learn  to  do  double  time  for  from 
two  to  four  minutes.  Bayonets  exercise  should  be  given  but 
final  assaults  should  never  be  made  with  Helmets  or  Respirators 
adjusted.  In  musketry  the  English  use  the  following  drill.  With 
men  occupying  the  300  yard  line  the  orders  are  given: 

(1)  “Gas  Alert.” 

f2)  “Fix  Bayonets.  Load.” 

(3)  “Prepare  to  advance.” 

(4)  “Advance.”  (Signal.) 

Detail  advances  on  the  double  to  the  200  yard  trench  where 
the  gas  alarm  is  given.  Helmets  must  be  correctly  adjusted  in 


52 


LECTURE  ON  GAS  FOR  OFFICERS. 


20  seconds,  the  targets  go  up  for  60  seconds  during  which  time  the 
men  must  fire  ten  rounds.  After  firing  the  officer  in  charge 
inspects  the  Helmets  or  Respirators  and  points  out  those  which 
have  become  displaced  or  disarranged  in  such  a  way  as  to 
endanger  the  wearer. 

Bombers,  especially,  must  practice  in  gas  helmets.  Telephone 
operators  must  practice  sending  and  receiving  messages  while 
wearing  helmets.  Lewis  and  machine  gun  teams  must  practice 
rapid  loading,  aiming  and  clearing  jams.  Ambulance  men  should 
practice  stretcher  drill  with  helmets  on  and,  if  possible,  moving 
casualties  into  gas-proof  dugouts.  One  man  in  four  Avill  simulate 
a  casualty  and  endeavor  to  remove  his  helmet,  the  other  three 
restraining  him,  tying  his  hands  and  carrying  him  to  a  place  of 
safety. 

ALWAYS  REMEMBER  THAT  YOUR  ANTI-GAS  APPLI¬ 
ANCES  ARE  OF  IMPORTANCE  SECOND  ONLY  TO  YOUR 
WEAPONS.  KEEP  THEM  IN  PERFECT  CONDITION.  YOUR 
LIFE  MAY  DEPEND  ON  THEM. 


CHAPTER  III. 


DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS. 


Every  Officer  is  responsible  that  the  men  under  his  command 
are  properly  instructed  in  Defensive  Measures  against  Gas 
Attacks,  that  all  appliances  are  at  all  times  in  perfect  order  and 
that  Standing  Orders  on  the  subject  are  thoroughly  understood. 
During  a  Gas  Attack  it  is  important  that  all  measures  taken 
should  be  carried  out  with  the  utmost  calm  in  order  to  avoid 
confusion  and  waste  of  energy. 


DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS.  55 


PART  i.— INTRODUCTION.  ORIGIN  OF  GAS  ATTACKS. 

35.  The  use  of  various  gases  as  weapons  of  offense  in  the 
present  war  has  become  so  general  that  in  any  training  of  troops 
in  the  future  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  technique  of  gas 
attacks  and  the  methods  of  defense  against  them  must  be  included. 

The  use  of  gas,  like  many  of  the  other  weapons  now  in  com¬ 
mon  use  in  the  armies  of  Europe,  such  as  the  catapult,  flame 
projector,  trench  knife,  and  sling,  is  an  inheritance  from  the 
early  ages,  amplified,  improved,  and  made  more  destructive  by 
the  aid  of  modern  science. 

The  first  recorded  effort  to  overcome  the  enemy  by  the  genera¬ 
tion  of  poisonous  and  suffocating  gases  seems  to  have  been  in 
the  wars  of  the  Athenians  and  Spartans  (431  to  404  B.  C.),  when 
in  besieging  the  cities  of  Platea  and  Delium  the  Spartans  satu¬ 
rated  wood  with  pitch  and  sulphur  and  burnt  it  under  the  walls 
of  those  cities  in  the  hopes  of  choking  the  defenders  and  render¬ 
ing  the  assault  less  difficult.  They  also  melted  pitch,  charcoal, 
and  sulphur  together  in  cauldrons  and  blew  the  fumes  over  the 
defenders’  lines  by  means  of  bellowTs. 

“  Greek  fire  ”  was  used  by  the  Byzantine  Greeks  under  Con¬ 
stantine  about  672  A.  D.,  to  destroy  the  Saracens,  and  the 
Saracens,  in  turn,  used  it  as  a  weapon  of  defense  against  the 
Christians  during  the  crusades.  This  Greek  fire  had  the  double 
advantage  of  being  not  only  inflammable,  but  also  generating 
during  the  process  of  combustion,  clouds  of  dense,  blinding  smoke 
and  gas  of  an  asphyxiating  character.  (This  gas,  sulphurous 
dioxide,  is  one  of  the  gases  used  to-day.)  Its  chemical  com¬ 
position  was  supposed  to  be  a  mixture  of  quicklime,  petroleum, 
sulphur,  and  such  other  inflammable  substance  as  pitch,  resin, 
etc.  Upon  the  addition  of  water  the  slaking  process  which  the 
quicklime  underwent  generated  enough  heat  to  ignite  the  petro¬ 
leum,  which,  in  turn,  ignited  the  resin,  pitch,  and  sulphur.  This 
flaming  mixture  was  delivered  against  the  enemy  by  means  of 
fantastic  syringes  in  the  shape  of  dragons  and  other  monsters 
with  wide  jaws. 

The  first  use  of  gas  in  modern  warfare  occurred  April  22,  1915, 
when  the  Germans  liberated  great  clouds  of  gas  against  the  allies' 
trenches  near  Ypres,  with  a  resulting  complete  demoralization  of 
the  troops  and  a  large  number  of  casualties. 

Coincident  with  the  use  of  the  “  gas  cloud  ”  the  Germans  began 
to  use  gas  also  in  bombs,  hand  grenades,  and  shells.  The  world 


56  DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS. 


was  astounded  at  this  resurrection  of  an  ancient  form  of  warfare, 
strictly  forbidden  by  The  Hague  convention,  but  new  weapons 
in  war  demand  that  they  be  met  with  similar  weapons,  and  a 
week  later  the  allies  had  agreed  to  manufacture  gas  shells  and 
use  gas  in  other  ways  in  retaliation.  From  this  beginning,  gas 
has  now  become  recognized  as  one  of  the  accepted  arms  of  the 
military  service  and  is  being  used  very  extensively  in  all  armies, 
especially  in  the  form  of  gas  shells. 

A.—  GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 

36.  The  following  notes  on  defensive  measures  against  hostile 
gas  attacks  have  been  compiled  for  the  guidance  of.  regimental 
officers  in  instructing  their  men  and  giving  orders  on  this  subject. 
They  deal  chiefly  with  the  preparations  necessary  to  combat  such 
attacks  successfully,  and  with  the  action  to  be  taken  during  and 
subsequent  to  an  attack. 

37.  In  the  absence  of  suitable  means  of  protection  the  poison 
gases  used  in  war  are  extremely  deadly  and  the  breathing  of  only 
very  small  quantities  of  them  may  cause  death  or  serious  injury. 
This  being  the  case,  it  is  essential  that  not  the  slightest  time 
should  be  lost  in  putting  on  the  box  respirator  or  helmet  on  the 
gas  alarm  being  given. 

It  cannot  be  too  strongly  insisted  on  that  the  measures  which 
have  been  elaborated  to  meet  hostile  gas  attacks  afford  perfect 
protection,  and  if  they  are  carried  out  properly  no  one  will  suffer 
from  gas  poisoning. 

38.  The  whole  basis  of  protecting  troops  against  gas  lies  (a)  in 
keeping  the  appliances  in  perfect  working  order;  ( b )  in  learning 
to  adjust  them  rapidly  under  all  conditions;  and  (c)  in  ensuring 
that  every  man  is  given  immediate  Avarning.  These  results  can 
only  be  attained: 

(i)  By  frequent  and  thorough  inspection  of  all  protective 

appliances. 

(ii)  By  thorough  instruction  and  training  in  their  use. 

(iii)  By  every  man  understanding  and  complying  with  all 

Standing  Orders  on  the  subject  of  defence  against  gas. 

If  these  are  effectually  carried  out,  there  is  nothing  to  fear  from 
hostile  gas  attacks.  Officers  must  impress  this  on  their  men,  as  an 
important  object  of  all  anti-gas  instruction  should  be  to  inspire 
complete  confidence  in  the  efficacy  of  the  methods  which  are 
adopted. 


DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS.  57 
B.— NATURE  OF  GAS  ATTACKS. 

Gas  Clouds: 

39.  Tliis  method  of  making  a  gas  attack  is  entirely  dependent 
on  the  direction  of  the  wind.  The  gas  is  carried  up  to  the  trenches 
compressed  in  steel  cylinders.  These  are  dug  in  at  the  bottom  of 
the  trench  and  connected  with  pipes  leading  out  over  the  parapet. 
When  the  valves  of  the  cylinders  are  opened,  the  gas  escapes  with 
a  hissing  sound,  which,  on  a  still  night,  can  frequently  be  heard 
at  a  considerable  distance.  It  mixes  with  the  air  and  is  carried  by 
the  wind  towards  the  opposing  trenches,  spreading  out  as  it  goes 
forward.  A  continuous  wave  of  gas  and  air  is  thus  formed,  the 
colour  of  which  may  vary. 

{a)  Because  of  the  weather  conditions.  In  very  dry  air  it 
may  be  almost  transparent  and  slightly  greenish  in 
color  while  in  damp  weather  it  forms  a  white  cloud. 

(5)  Because  it  may  be  mixed  with  smoke  of  any  color. 

40.  A  cloud  attack  can  only  take  place  when  there  is  a  steady 
but  not  too  strong  wind  blowing  from  the  enemy’s  lines  towards 
our  own.  A  wind  between  4  and  8  miles  an  hour  is  the  most 
likely  condition.  An  8 -mile  wind  will  carry  the  gas  cloud  twice 
as  quickly  as  a  man  walks  rapidly. 

Gas  attacks  may  occur  at  any  time  of  the  day,  but  are  most 
likely  to  be  made  during  the  night  or  in  the  early  morning. 

Gentle  rain  is  without  appreciable  effect  on  a  gas  attack,  but 
strong  rain  washes  down  the  gas.  Fogs  have  hardly  any  effect, 
and  may,  in  fact,  be  taken  advantage  of  to  make  an  attack  unex¬ 
pectedly.  Watercourses  and  ponds  are  no  obstruction  to  a  gas 
cloud. 

41.  The  gas  used  by  the  enemy  is  generally  a  mixture  of  chlorine 
and  phosgene,  both  of  which  are  strongly  asphyxiating.  The 
gases  are  heavier  than  air,  and  therefore  tend  to  flow  along  the 
ground  and  into  trenches,  shelters,  craters  and  hollows.  The  gas 
cloud  may  flow  round  slight  eminences,  thus  leaving  patches  of 
country  which  remain  free  from  gas. 

42.  Chlorine  and  phosgene  strongly  attack  the  mucous  mem¬ 
branes  of  the  respiratory  organs,  causing  bad  coughing.  In 
strong  concentrations  of  gas,  or  by  longer  exposure  to  low  con¬ 
centrations,  the  lungs  are  injured  and  breathing  becomes  more 
and  more  difficult  and  eventually  impossible,  so  that  the  un¬ 
protected  man  dies  of  suffocation.  Death  is  sometimes  caused 


58  DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS. 


by  two  or  three  breaths  of  the  gas.  Even  when  very  dilute, 
chlorine  can  be  recognized  by  its  peculiar  smell,  which  is  like 
chloride  of  lime,  but  stronger  and  more  irritating. 

Both  chlorine  and  phosgene  also  exert  a  strongly  corrosive 
action  on  metals,  so  that  the  metal  parts  of  arms  must  be  care¬ 
fully  protected  by  greasing  them. 

43.  The  speed  with  which  the  gas  cloud  approaches  depends 
•entirely  on  the  wind  velocity.  Gas  attacks  have  been  made  with 
wind  velocities  varying  from  3  to  20  miles  per  hour,  i.  e.,  from 
1-|  to  10  yards  per  second.  In  a  9-mile  wind,  the  gas  would  reach 
trenches  100  yards  distant  in  20  seconds. 

Gas  attacks  have  been  made  on  fronts  varying  from  1  to  5 
miles;  their  effects  at  points  up  to  8  miles  behind  the  front 
trenches  have  been  sufficiently  severe  to  make  it  necessary  to 
wear  helmets. 

Gas  Projectiles: 

44.  The  use  of  these  is  not  entirely  dependent  on  the  direction 
of  the  wind.  In  gas  projectiles  such  as  shells,  hand  grenades,  and 
trench  mortar  bombs,  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  expxlosive  charge 
is  replaced  by  a  liquid  which  is  converted  into  gas  by  the  ex¬ 
plosion.  The  explosive  force  and  noise  of  detonation  of  these 
projectiles  is  less  than  that  of  the  ordinary  kind,  and  a  large 
number  of  them  are  usually  discharged  into  a  comparatively 
small  space.  After  the  explosion,  the  irritant  chemicals  form  a 
small  gas  cloud,  though  some  may  sink  to  the  ground  and  re¬ 
main  active  for  a  considerable  time. 

For  using  gas  shells,  the  best  condition  is  calm,  or  with  a  wind 
of  low  velocity.  Nine -tenths  of  all  gas  attacks  are  shell  attacks. 

Gas  projectiles  can  be  used  in  all  types  of  country.  Woods, 
bushels  and  cornfields  and  clumps  of  buildings  may  hold  the  gas 
active  for  a  considerable  time. 

45.  Two  kinds  of  shell  gases  are  used  by  the  enemy,  viz., 
lachrymators,  which  mainly  affect  the  eyes,  and  poison  gases, 
which  may  affect  the  eyes  and  are  just  as  deadly  as  the  gases 
used  in  the  form  of  clouds. 

Tear,  or  Lachrymatory  Shells: 

46.  These  shells  on  explosion  drive  the  liquid  chemical  which 
they  contain  into  the  air  as  a  mist.  They  cause  the  eyes  to 
water  strongly  and  thereby  gradually  put  men  out  of  action. 


DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS.  59 


Their  actual  smell  may  be  slight.  Large  concentrations  of 
lachrymators  begin  to  afl'ect  the  lungs  and  cause  sickness,  cough¬ 
ing  and  general  irritation. 

Poison  Shells: 

47.  Besides  the  comparatively  harmless  lachrymators  the  enemy 
also  uses  projectiles  which  contain  a  gas,  the  action  of  which  is 
very  similar  to  that  of  phosgene.  Because  of  their  slight  detona¬ 
tion,  these  shells  are  liable  to  be  mistaken  for  blinds,  but  they 
emit  large  quantities  of  a  gas  which  attacks  the  lungs  strongly, 
and  is  very  dangerous,  and  even  in  slight  cases  may  cause  serious 
after-effects. 

Smoke: 

48.  The  enemy  may  make  use  of  smoke,  either  in  the  form  of  a 
cloud  or  emitted  from  shells  and  bombs.  Smoke  may  be  used  with 
gas  or  between  gas  clouds;  it  may  also  be  used  alone  to  distract 
attention  from  a  real  discharge  of  gas,  to  cover  the  advance  of 
infantry,  or  merely  as  a  false  gas  attack. 

Mine  and  Explosion  Gases: 

49.  The  poisonous  gases  which  occur  in  mines,  and  which  are 
formed  in  large  quantities  when  high  explosive  goes  off  in  an 
enclosed  space,  e.  g.,  from  a  direct  hit  in  a  shelter,  or  on  the  ex¬ 
plosion  of  a  charge  in  a  mine,  are  not  protected  against  by  the 
ordinary  anti-gas  appliances.  The  chief  of  these  gases  is  carbon 
monoxide.  Protection  against  such  gases  will  not  be  considered 
in  these  notes. 

PART  2. 

II.— ORGANIZATION  OF  GAS  DEFENCE. 

In  England: 

50.  Training  at  home. 

Chemical  adviser  for  home  forces,  organizes  all  the  anti-gas 
training. 

The  different  gas  departments  are  divided  into  various  groups, 
such  as:  Eastern  Command;  Southern  Command;  Western 
Command. 

Over  each  command  is  a  chemical  adviser,  who  conducts 
the  school  in  that  particular  command. 


60  DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS. 


Each  command  is  divided  up  over  nine  areas;  each  area  has 
a  gas  officer;  each  officer  has  a  school  for  about  nine  days. 

At  each  command  school  gas  officers  and  non-coms  are  picked 
from  the  various  areas. 

Each  Battalion  has  a  gas  officer  or  non-commissioned  officer. 

At  the  end  of  eight  weeks  the  men  try  out  their  speed  test, 
then  a  test  at  gas  in  gas  chambers. 

At  the  end  of  the  eleventh  week,  men  are  trained  to  fit  respira¬ 
tors  (new  ones). 

At  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  week,  a  night  attack. 

The  gas  commander  works  with  the  bombing  officer,  to  help 
make  bombs. 

Men  have  to  fire  while  wearing  their  respirators  (attacks,  firing, 
living  in  them,  marches). 

In  France: 

Chemical  adviser  to  Army. 

Each  army  divided  up  into  three  corps. 

One  chemical  adviser  to  each  corps. 

Each  corps  divided  into  three  divisions. 

Each  Division  has  a  gas  officer. 

Each  Regiment  has  a  gas  officer. 

Each  Battalion  a  gas  officer  or  non-commissioned  officer.  Army 
•school  trains  gas  officers  for  divisional  army.  Each  division 
trains  officers  and  non-commissioned  officers. 

51.  Officers  are  held  responsible  that  all  the  anti-gas  appliances 
for  protecting  their  men  are  maintained  in  perfect  condition,  and 
that  all  ranks  under  their  command  are  thoroughly  trained  in  the 
use  of  these  appliances  and  in  all  other  measures  which  may1 
affect  their  safety  against  gas. 

52.  Summary  of  Protective  Measures. 

(a)  Provision  to  each  man  of  individual  protective  devices. 

(b)  Arrangement  for  the  inspection  of  those  appliances  and 
training  in  their  use  and  instruction  in  all  other  measures  of 
gas  defence. 

(c)  Provision  of  protected  and  gas-proof  shelters. 

(d)  Weather  observations  to  determine  periods  when  the  con¬ 
ditions  are  favorable  to  a  hostile  gas  attack. 

(e)  Arrangement  of  signals  and  messages  for  immediate 
warning  of  a  gas  attack. 

(f)  Provision  of  appliances  for  clearing  gas  from  trenches 
and  shelters. 


DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS.  61 


ORGANIZATION  OF  ANTI-GAS  DUTIES. 

53.  All  ranks  must  be  fully  conversant  with  the  measures  to 
be  adopted  for  defence  against  gas  attacks  as  laid  down  in  the 
Standing  Orders  of  their  formation  or  unit.* 

A  special  Gas  Officer  is  appointed  in  each  Division  so  that 
technical  advice  is  readily  available  on  all  matters  connected  with 
gas  defence.  This  officer  is  also  charged  with  all  duties  at  the 
Divisional  Anti-Gas  School.  Apart  from  this,  the  following 
scheme  of  anti-gas  duties  should  be  adopted  within  units. 

ANTI-GAS  DUTIES  WITHIN  AN  INFANTRY  BATTALION. 

{To  be  modified  for  other  units  to  suit  their  organization  and 
duties. ) 

54.  The  Commanding  Officer  will  be  directly  responsible  for  all 
measures  against  gas  attacks,  and  Company  Commanders  will  be 
responsible  to  the  C.  0.  for  all  anti-gas  masures  within  their 
companies. 

In  each  Company  one  N.  C.  0.,  who  has  been  trained  at  an  Anti- 
Gas  School,  and  who  has  been  recommended  bv  the  Divisional 
Gas  Officer  as  suitable  for  duty  as  “  Company  Gas  N.  C.  0./’  will 
be  specially  detailed  to  assist  the  Company  Commander  in  anti¬ 
gas  measures.  At  least  one  other  similarly  trained  and  recom¬ 
mended  N.  C.  0.  will  be  immediately  available  to  take  the  place 
of  the  Gas  N.  C.  0.  in  case  of  need. 

A  similarly  trained  Gas  N.  C.  0.  will  be  detailed  to  Battalion 
H.  Q.  for  duty  with  H.  Q.  details. 

55.  The  special  duties  of  the  Gas  N.  C.  O’s.  will  be  definitely  laid 
down  in  Battalions.f  Other  duties  may,  however,  be  performed, 
provided  that  these  do  not  interfere  with  the  gas  duties  laid 
down. 

56.  In  order  to  secure  the  necessary  training  in  all  matters 
pertaining  to  defense  against  gas  attacks,  the  following  officers 
and  N.  C.  Os.  should  attend  a  course  at  the  Divisional  Anti-Gas 
School : 

(a)  Officers. 

(1)  The  Commanding  Officer  or  Second  in  Command  and 
the  medical  officer. 


*  For  typical  Divisional  Standing  Orders,  see  Chapter  VII. 
t  For  typical  Standing  Orders  for  Company  Gas  N.C.Os..  see 
Chapter  Till. 


62  DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS. 


(2)  All  Company  Commanders. 

(3)  Other  Officers  and  Warrant  Officers,  if  and  when 
possible. 

<b)  N.  C.  Os. 

(1)  Two  per  Company  and  per  Battalion  H.  Q. 

(2)  Supplementary  N.  C.  Os.  to  be  trained  whenever  possi¬ 
ble,  so  as  to  have  a  reserve  from  which  to  draw  to  replace 

Gas  N.  C.  Os.  in  case  of  need. 


The  selected  N.  C.  0’s.  who  attend  the  Divisional  Anti-Gas 
Schools  will  be  reported  on  by  the  Divisional  Gas  Officer  as  fol¬ 
lows:  At  the  end  of  the  course  the  Divisional  Gas  Officer  will, 
if  the  N.  C.  0.  is,  in  his  opinion,  suitable  for  duty  as  “  Company 
Gas  N.  C.  0.,”  notify  the  C.  O.  concerned  to  this  effect.  The 
latter  will  then  cause  the  words  “  Passed  Anti-Gas  School  ”  to  be 
entered  in  his  pay  book.  Only  N.  C.  Os.  who  have  been  thus 
reported  on  favorably  will  be  detailed  for  duty  as  Company  Gas 


N.  C.  Os. 


57.  C.  Os.  will  facilitate  in  every  way  the  duties  of  the  Divi¬ 
sional  Gas  Officer  and  his  1ST.  C.  Os.  in  visiting  their  lines  and 
inspecting  anti-gas  arrangements,  testing  Strombos  horn  cylinders, 
etc.  They  should  take  every  opportunity  of  consulting  with  the 
Divisional  Gas  Officer  on  all  technical  questions  relating  to  anti- 
gas  measures  within  their  lines. 


PERSONAL  ANTI-GAS  EQUIPMENT. 

Equipment  Carried: 

58.  Each  man  is  provided  with  a  small  box  respirator,  a  P.  H. 
helmet  and  a  pair  of  goggles.  He  must  be  made  to  realize  that 
these  appliances  are  personal  equipment,  that  they  are  of  import¬ 
ance  second  only  to  his  weapons,  and  that  his  life  may  depend  on 
looking  after  them  and  keeping  them  in  good  order. 

59.  The  small  box  respirator  is  the  most  important  protective 
apparatus.  It  is  always  to  be  used  first  in  case  of  a  gas  attack, 
unless  special  orders  are  issued  to  the  contrary.  It  will  protect 
against  all  poisonous  gases  with  the  exception  of  mine  and  explo¬ 
sion  gases,  and  will  not  become  exhausted  for  hours,  even  in 
concentrations  of  gas  normally  unobtainable  in  the  field. 

60.  The  P.  H.  helmet  is  an  emergency  or  reserve  defense.  It 
is  only  to  be  used  if  the  owner  should  not  have  a  box  respirator 
or  if  the  latter  should  be  found,  for  any  reason,  to  be  defective. 


DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS.  63 


The  helmet  protects  against  all  poisonous  gases  used  by  the- 
enemy,  but  it  does  not  give  complete  protection  against  heavy 
bombardment  by  lachrymatory  shells. 

It  is  not  possible  to  put  the  P.  H.  helmet  on  as  quickly  as  the 
small  box  respirator. 

6 1.  The  rubber-sponge  goggles  are  intended  for  use  in  areas, 
which  have  been  subjected  to  a  bombardment  with  lachrymatory 
shells,  and  in  which  the  concentration  of  the  lachrymator  is  so 
reduced  that  the  air  can  be  breathed  without  discomfort,  though 
effect  on  the  eyes  remains.  It  must  be  remembered  that  after 
such  a  bombardment,  the  tear-producing  effect  may  persist,  even 
in  the  open,  for  several  hours,  and  in  trenches,  dugouts,  cellars, 
etc.,  may  last  for  over  a  day. 

When  and  Where  Carried: 

62.  (a)  All  three  appliances  should  be  carried  within  three  miles- 
of  the  front  line. 

(6)  When  the  wind  is  safe,  working  parties  during  work  and  at 
the  discretion  of  the  officer  in  command  may  take  off  their  box 
respirators,  provided  the  latter  are  placed  conveniently  at  hand 
for  use  in  case  of  a  sudden  gas  shell  attack  or  change  of  wind, 
The  P.  H.  helmet  will  always  be  carried. 

(c)  At  distances  greater  than  three  miles  the  P.  H.  helmet  and, 
goggles  only  need  be  carried,  the  box  respirators  being  kept  with 
the  equipment  under  arrangements  by  the  0.  C.  of  the  Unit. 

PROTECTION  OF  SHELTERS. 

Methods  of  Protection: 

63.  Protection  of  dug-outs,  cellars,  buildings,  etc.,  is  given  if 
all  entrances  are  closed  by  well-fitting  doors  or  by  blankets- 
sprayed  with  hypo,  solution  from  a  Vermorel  sprayer.  Prac-  / 
tically  no  gas  passes  through  a  wet  blanket,  and  the  protection 
depends  on  getting  a  good  joint  at  the  sides  and  bottom  of  a 
doorway,  so  as  to  stop  all  draughts.  This  can  be  effected  by 
letting  the  blanket  rest  on  battens,  fixed  with  a  slight  slope,, 
against  the  door  frame.  The  blanket  should  overlap  the  outer 
sides  and  a  fold  should  lie  on  the  ground  at  the  bottom.  A  pole 
is  fastened  to  the  blanket,  which  allows  the  latter  to  be  rolled 
up  on  the  frame  and  causes  it  to  fall  evenly. 

64.  Wherever  possible,  particularly  where  there  is  likely  to  be- 
movement  in  and  out  of  the  shelter,  two  blankets  fitted  in  this. 


64  DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS. 


way  but  sloping  in  opposite  directions  should  be  provided.  There 
should  be  an  interval  of  at  least  3  feet  between  the  two  frames, 
and  the  larger  this  vestibule  is  made,  the  more  efficient  is  the 
dug-out. 

When  not  in  use,  the  blankets  should  be  rolled  up  and  held  so 
that  they  can  be  readily  released,  and  should  be  sprayed 
occasionally  with  water  or  a  little  Vermorel  sprayer  solution. 

If  the  blankets  become  stiff  from  a  deposit  of  chemicals,  they 
should  be  sprayed  with  water. 

65.  All  ranks  must  be  taught  how  to  use  gas-proof  dug-outs, 
e.  g.,  how  to  enter  a  protected  doorway  quickly,  replacing  the 
blanket  immediately,  and  carrying  in  as  little  outside  air  as 
possible. 

66.  The  protection  afforded  by  these  means  is  just  as  complete 
against  lachrymatory  gases  as  it  is  against  cloud  gas  and  poison¬ 
ous  shell  gases. 

Shelters  Which  Should  be  Protected: 

67.  The  following  should  always  be  protected: 

Medical  aid-posts  and  advanced  dressing  stations,  Company, 
Battalion  and  Brigade  Headquarters,  Signal  Shelters  and 
any  other  place  where  work  has  to  be  carried  out  during 
a  gas  attack. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  it  is  desirable  to  protect  all  dug-outs, 
cellars  and  buildings  within  the  shell  area,  particularly  those  of 
artillery  personnel.  It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  the  pro¬ 
tection  of  dug-outs  for  troops  in  the  front  line  of  trenches  is 
usually  inadvisable  on  account  of  the  delay  involved  in  getting 
men  out  in  time  of  attack.  It  is  desirable  to  protect  stretcher 
bearers’  dug-outs  with  a  view  to  putting  casualties  in  them. 

Protection  of  Weapons  and  Equipment: 

68.  Arms  and  ammunition  and  the  metal  parts  of  special  equip¬ 
ment  {e.  g.,  telephone  instruments)  must  be  carefully  protected 
against  gas  by  greasing  them  or  keeping  them  completely  covered 
Otherwise,  particularly  in  damp  weather,  they  may  rust  or  corrode 
so  badly  as  to  refuse  to  act.  A  mineral  oil  must  be  used  for  this 
purpose.  The  following  in  particular  should  be  protected: 

Small  Arms  and  Small  Arms  Ammunition: 

69.  Machine  guns  and  rifles  must  be  kept  carefully  cleaned  and 
well  oiled.  The  effects  of  corrosion  of  ammunition  are  of  even 


DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS.  65 

more  importance  than  the  direct  effects  of  gas  upon  machine  guns 
and  rifles. 

Ammunition  boxes  must  be  kept  closed.  Vickers  belts  should 
be  kept  in  their  boxes  until  actually  required  for  use.  The 
wooden  belt  boxes  are  fairly  gas-tight,  but  the  metal  belt  boxes 
should  be  made  gas-tight  by  inserting  strips  of  flannelette  in 
the  joint  between  the  lid  and  the  box. 

Lewis  magazines  should  be  kept  in  some  form  of  box,  the  joints 
of  which  are  made  as  gas-tight  as  possible  with  flannelette. 

A  recess  should  be  made,  high  up  in  the  parapet  if  possible,  for 
storing  ammunition  and  guns.  A  blanket  curtain,  moistened  with 
water  or  Vermorel  sprayer  solution,  will  greatly  assist  in  keeping 
the  gas  out. 

Hand  and  Rifle  Grenades: 

70.  Unboxed  grenades  should  be  kept  covered  as  far  as  possible. 
All  safety  pins  and  working  parts,  especially  those  made  of  brass, 
should  be  kept  oiled  to  prevent  their  setting  from  corrosion  by 
the  gas.  In  the  case  of  No.  20  and  No.  24  Rifle  Grenades,  oil 
should  be  worked  in  as  much  as  possible  under  the  sleeve  retain¬ 
ing  the  studs,  as  these  are  liable  to  become  set.  The  rods  also 
require  the  same  treatment. 

Light  Trench  Mortars  and  Their  Ammunition: 

71.  As  far  as  the  supply  of  oil  permits,  the  bore  and  all  bright 
parts  of  light  trench  mortars  and  their  spare  parts  should  be  kept 
permanently  oiled.  When  not  in  use,  mortars  should  be  covered 
with  sacking  or  similar  material. 

Unboxed  ammunition  should  be  kept  covered  as  far  as  possible 
and  the  bright  parts  oiled  immediately  after  arrival.  Ammunition 
which  has  been  in  store  for  some  time  should  be  used  up  first. 

Guns,  Medium  and  Heavy  Trench  Mortars  and  Their  Ammunition : 

72.  The  protection  of  artillery  and  artillery  ammunition  is 
dealt  with  in  paragraph  156. 

Signals  Equipment: 

v  73.  .The  protection  of  signals  equipment  is  dealt  with  in 
paragraph  163. 

3 


66  DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS. 


Wind  Observation: 

74.  Officers  detailed  for  that  duty  in  all  units  in  the  front  line 
report  to  Headquarters  of  Formations  whenever  the  wind  passes 
into  a  dangerous  quarter,  showing  the  direction  and  strength  of 
the  wind.  As  a  result  of  these  reports,  “  Gas  Alert  ”  is  ordered 
by  Corps  or  Divisional  H.  Q.  These  general  reports,  however, 
refer  to  large  tracts  of  country  and  it  is  possible  that  on  isolated 
lengths  of  front,  conditions  of  terrain  or  the  alignment  of  the 
trenches  may  permit  of  local  air  currents  which  are  favorable  to 
the  enemy.  It  is  essential,  therefore,  that  the  troops  themselves 
should  be  on  the  lookout  for  the  possibility  of  a  gas  attack.  For 
this  purpose  Company  Commanders  are  responsible  that  wind 
observations  are  made  on  their  Company  front  every  three  hours, 
or  oftener  if  the  wind  is  in,  or  approaching,  a  dangerous  quarter, 
and  the  reports  forwarded  through  the  usual  channels  to  Brigade 
H.  Q.  For  the  method  of  making  these  observations  and  pre¬ 
paring  the  reports,  see  Appendix  VI. 

THE  GAS  ALERT  PERIOD. 

Order  for  Gas  Alert: 

75.  Gas  Alert  will  be  ordered  when  the  wind  is  in  the  dangerous 
quarter,  no  matter  what  the  strength  of  the  wind. 

The  order  “  Gas  Alert  ”  will  be  sent  out  to  all  units  by  Corps 
H.  Q.  (or,  if  authority  has  been  so  delegated,  by  Divisional  H.  Q.), 
but  Brigade  H.  Q.  or  Battalion  Commanders  are  empowered  to 
order  a  “  Gas  Alert  ”  as  a  result  of  wind  observations  forwarded 
by  Company  Commanders.  Such  action  will  be  reported  im¬ 
mediately  to  the  next  higher  formation. 

Gas  Alert  notices  should  be  posted  at  the  entrance  to  each 
main  communication  trench  and  at  other  suitable  points  within 
Divisional  Areas. 

PRECAUTIONS  DURING  GAS  ALERT. 

Inspection: 

76.  All  box  respirators  and  helmets  should  be  carefully  in¬ 
spected  and  the  inspection  should  be  repeated  daily.  Steps  must 
be  taken  to  ascertain  that  all  gas  alarm  appliances  are  in  their 
position  and  in  good  order. 


DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS.  67 


Alert  position  of  respirators  and  helmets: 

77.  All  ranks  within  one  mile  of  the  front  line  must  carry 
their  box  respirators  (or  their  helmets,  should  they  have  no  box 
respirators)  in  the  alert  position.  The  press  buttons  of  the  flap 
of  the  box  respirator  satchel  must  be  unfastened. 

During  Gas  Alert  the  chin  strap  of  the  steel  helmet  must  on  no 
account  be  worn  under  the  chin,  as  it  will  impede  the  rapid  ad¬ 
justment  of  the  respirator  or  helmet. 

Special  Orders  for  men  using  the  P.  H.  Helmet: 

78.  The  two  upper  buttons  of  both  jacket  and  greatcoat  will 
he  left  undone.  Men  are  forbidden  to  wear  mackintosh  sheets 
around  their  necks. 

In  no  circumstances  will  anything  (rifle,  field  glasses,  etc.)  be 
slung  across  the  chest  in  such  a  manner  as  to  interfere  with  the 
rapid  adjustment  of  the  helmet. 

Jackets  will  not  be  taken  off  within  one  mile  of  the  front  line. 

Sentries,  Etc.: 

79.  A  sentry  should  be  posted  at  each  strombos  horn  or  other 
alarm  device  and  instructed  in  its  use  and  all  working  parties 
should  have  a  sentry  posted  to  give  instant  warning  of  a  gas 
attack. 

A  sentry  should  be  posted  to  every  large  shelter  or  group  of 
small  shelters  and  also  to  each  Headquarters,  Signal  Office  and 
each  independent  body  of  men. 

Arrangements  must  be  made  by  the  officer  in  charge  of  the 
trench  for  warning  the  Artillery  Observation  Post  if  there  is  one 
in  the  trench. 

Commanders  of  units  in  billets  within  8  miles  of  the  front  line 
trenches  must  organize  a  system  of  giving  the  alarm  and  rousing 
all  men  in  cellars  or  houses. 

At  night  sentries  should  have  at  least  two  men  within  reach  of 
them,  so  that  the  alarm  can  be  spread  rapidly. 

Sleeping: 

80.  When  a  gas  attack  is  probable,  men  in  front  line  trenches 
should  sleep  on  the  fire  step  instead  of  in  dug-outs.  Men  sleeping 
in  rearward  lines,  or  in  works  where  they  are  allowed  to  take  off 
their  equipment,  must  sleep  with  their  box  respirators  on  the 
person. 


68  DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS. 


Company  Gas  N.  C.  Os.: 

81.  Company  Gas  N.  C.  Os.  will  report  to  Company  H.  Q.  in 
readiness  to  assist  the  Company  Commander  should  a  gas  attack 
occur. 

82.  Officers  and  N.  C.  Os.  in  command  of  any  unit  or  party 
must  see  that  the  above  orders  are  strictly  carried  out,  both  for 
troops  in  front  line  trenches  and  for  detached  bodies  of  troops 
(working  and  carrying  parties,  etc.) 

Ammonia  Capsules: 

83.  Medical  Officers  must  see  that  a  proper  proportion  of  the 
ammonia  capsules  are  with  stretcher  barriers  in  the  front  line,  in 
readiness  for  their  immediate  use  after  a  gas  attack. 

Removal  of  Gas  Alert: 

84.  Gas  Alert  will  not  be  taken  off  without  the  authority  of 
the  Corps  Commander  or  the  Divisional  Commander  to  whom  au¬ 
thority  has  been  delegated. 

On  the  receipt  of  orders  for  the  removal  of  Gas  Alert,  the 
notices  on  the  subject  will  be  amended  accordingly. 

GAS  ALARM. 

Method  of  Giving  the  Alarm: 

85.  — For  the  purpose  of  giving*  the  alarm  the  Strombos  horn, 
which  is  audible  for  very  long  distances,  is  the  most  important 
appliance.  Its  main  use  is  for  conveying  the  alarm  to  troops  in 
support  and  reserve  lines.  In  addition  some  local  appliance,  such 
as  a  gong  or  suspended  rail,  must  be  fitted  up  at  every  sentry’s 
post  for  the  purpose  of  rousing  the  men  in  the  immediate  vicin¬ 
ity  and  for  conveying  the  alarm  to  the  sentries  in  charge  of  the 
Strombos  horns. 

Strombos  horns  should  be  in  the  front  line,  at  intervals  ordinar¬ 
ily  not  greater  than  400  yards,  and  at  such  other  points  behind 
the  front  as  required  to  ensure  transmission  of  warning.  As 
much  use  as  possible  should  be  made  of  the  telephone  for  trans¬ 
mitting  the  gas  alarm,  though  it  cannot  be  relied  upon  owing  to 
the  possibility  of  its  breaking  down. 

No  reliance  can  be  placed  on  methods  of  giving  the  alarm 
involving  the  use  of  the  lungs,  e.  g.,  bugles  or  whistles. 


DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS.  69 


86.  Sentries  must  be  prepared  to  give  the  alarm  on  the  first 
appearance  of  gas,  as  a  few  seconds  delay  may  involve  very 
serious  consequences.  Signals  must  be  passed  along  by  all  sen¬ 
tries  as  soon  as  heard. 

The  earliest  warning  of  a  gas  attack  is  given:  — 

(a)  By  the  noise  of  the  gas  escaping  from  the  sylinders. 

( b )  By  the  appearance  of  a  cloud  of  any  color  over  the 
enemy’s  trenches.  If  the  attack  takes  place  at  night,  the 

cloud  will  not  be  visible  from  a  distance. 

(c)  By  the  smell  of  the  gas  in  listening  posts. 

ACTION  TO  BE  TAKEN  IN  THE  TRENCHES  ON  GAS  ALARM. 

87.  (a)  Respirators  to  be  put  on  immediately  by  all  ranks 
(a  helmet,  if  no  box  respirator  is  available). 

( b )  Rouse  all  men  in  trenches,  dug-outs  and  mine  shafts,  warn 
officers  and  artillery  observation  posts  and  all  employed  men. 

(c)  Artillery  Support  is  to  be  called  for  by  Company  Com¬ 
manders,  by  means  of  prearranged  signals. 

(d)  Warn  Battalion  H.  Q.  and  troops  in  rear. 

(e)  All  ranks  stand  to  arms  in  the  front  trenches  and  else¬ 
where  where  the  tactical  situation  demands. 

(/)  Blanket  curtains  at  entrances  to  protected  shelters  to  be 
let  down  and  carefully  fixed. 

( g )  Movement  to  cease  except  where  necessary. 

ACTION  TO  BE  TAKEN  IN  BILLETS  AND  BACK  AREAS. 

88.  ( a )  All  men  in  cellars  or  houses  to  be  roused. 

(5)  The  blanket  curtains  of  protected  cellars,  etc.,  to  be  let 
down  and  fixed  in  position. 

(c)  Box  respirators  to  be  put  on  immediately  the  gas  is  ap¬ 
parent. 

ACTION  DURING  A  GAS  ATTACK. 

PROTECTIVE  MEASURES: 

89.  There  should  be  as  little  moving  about  and  talking  as 
possible  in  the  trenches.  Men  must  be  made  to  realize  that  with 
the  gas  now  used  by  the  enemy,  observance  of  this  may  be  essen¬ 
tial  for  their  safety. 

When  an  attack  is  in  progress,  all  bodies  of  troops  or  trans¬ 
port  on  the  move  should  halt  and  all  working  parties  cease  work 
until  the  gas  cloud  has  passed. 


70  DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS. 


If  a  relief  is  going  on,  units  should  stand  fast  as  far  as  pos¬ 
sible  until  the  gas  cloud  has  passed. 

Supports  and  parties  bringing  up  bombs  should  only  be  moved 
up  if  the  tactical  situation  demands  it. 

90.  If  troops  in  support  or  reserve  lines  of  trenches  remain  in, 
or  go  into,  dug-outs,  they  must  continue  to  wear  their  anti-gas 
appliances. 

Officers  and  N.  C.  Os.  must  on  no  account  remove  or  open  up 
the  masks  of  the  box  respirators  or  raise  their  helmets  to  give 
orders.  The  breathing  tube  may  be  removed  from  the  mouth 
when  it  is  necessary  to  speak,  but  it  must  be  replaced. 

91.  Men  must  always  be  on  the  lookout  to  help  each  other  in 
case  a  box  respirator  or  helmet  is  damaged  by  fire  or  accident. 
When  a  man  is  wounded,  he  must  be  watched  to  see  that  he  does 
not  remove  his  respirator  or  helmet  until  he  is  safely  inside  a  pro¬ 
tected  shelter;  if  necessary,  his  hands  should  be  tied. 

Men  must  be  warned  that  if  they  are  slightly  gassed  before 
adjusting  their  respirators  or  helmets  they  must  not  remove  them. 
The  effect  will  wear  off. 

Tactical  Measures: 

92.  From  the  point  of  view  of  protection  against  gas,  nothing 
is  gained  by  men  remaining  in  unprotected  dug-outs  or  by  moving 
to  a  flank  or  to  the  rear.  It  is,  therefore,  desirable  that  on 
tactical  and  disciplinary  grounds  all  men  in  the  front  line  of 
trenches  should  be  forbidden  to  do  these  things.  In  support  or 
reserve  lines,  where  there  are  protected  dug-outs,  it  is  advisable 
for  men  to  stay  in  them  unless  the  tactical  situation  makes  it 
desirable  for  them  to  come  out. 

93.  Nothing  is  gained  by  opening  rapid  rifle  fire  unless  the 
enemy’s  infantry  attacks.  A  slow  rate  of  fire  from  rifles  and 
occasional  short  bursts  of  fire  from  machine  guns  will  lessen  the 
chance  of  their  jamming  from  the  action  of  the  gas  and  tends  to 
occupy  and  steady  the  infantry. 

94.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  enemy’s  infantry  cannot 
attack  while  the  gas  discharge  is  in  progress  and  is  unlikely  to 
do  so  for  an  appreciable  time  —  at  least  10  minutes  —  after  it 
has  ceased.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  common  practice  for  the  enemy 
infantry  to  retire  to  the  second  and  third  line  of  trench  whilst 
gas  is  being  discharged.  There  is,  therefore,  no  object  in  opening 
an  intense  S.  0.  S.  barrage  of  artillery  on  “  No  man’s  land  ” 


DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS.  71 


during  the  actual  gas  cloud  and  it  is  advisable  that  the  warning 
to  the  Artillery  of  a  gas  attack  should  be  a  signal  differing  from 
the  ordinary  S.  0.  S.  signal,  as  the  latter  may  have  to  be  sent 
later  if  an  infantry  attack  develops. 

95.  It  must  be  remembered  that  smoke  may  be  used  by  the 
enemy  at  the  same  time  as,  or  alternately  with,  the  gas  and  that 
under  cover  of  a  smoke  cloud  he  may  send  out  assaulting  or 
raiding  parties.  A  careful  lookout  must,  therefore,  be  kept; 
hostile  patrols  or  raiders  may  be  frustrated  by  cross-fire  of  rifles 
and  machine  guns  and  should  an  assault  develop  the  ordinary 
S.  0.  S.  procedure  should  be  carried  out. 

PRECAUTIONS  AGAINST  GAS  SHELLS. 

96.  Owing  to  the  small  explosion  which  occurs  with  these  shells, 
they  are  liable  to  be  mistaken  for  blinds,  and  even  when  the  gas 
is  smelt  men  may  not  realize  its  possibly  dangerous  character  at 
once  and  so  may  delay  putting  on  respirators  or  helmets  until 
too  late.  Men  sleeping  in  dug-outs  may  be  seriously  affected 
unless  they  are  roused.  Men  in  the  open  air  are  unlikely  to  be 
seriously  affected  by  poison  gas  shells,  provided  they  put  on 
respirators  or  helmets  on  first  experiencing  the  gas.  The  follow¬ 
ing  points  should  therefore  be  attended  to: 

97.  All  shells  which  explode  with  a  small  detonation  or  appear 
to  be  blind  should  be  regarded  with  particular  attention;  the 
respirator  or  helmet  should  be  put  on  at  the  first  indication  of  gas 
and  blanket  protection  of  shelters  adjusted. 

Arrangements  must  be  made  for  giving  a  local  alarm  in  the 
event  of  a  sudden  and  intense  bombardment  with  poison  gas 
shells,  but  care  must  be  taken  that  this  alarm  is  not  confused 
with  the  main  alarm.  Strombos  horns  must  on  no  account  be 
used  to  give  warning  of  a  gas  shell  bombardment. 

All  shelters  in  the  vicinity  of  an  area  bombarded  with 
poison  gas  shells  must  be  visited  and  any  sleeping  men  roused. 

Box  respirators  or  helmets  should  continue  to  be  worn  through¬ 
out  the  area  bombarded  with  poison  gas  shells  until  the  order 
is  given  by  the  local  unit  Commander  for  their  removal. 

98.  Lachrymatory  or  “  tear  ”  shells  are  frequently  used  by  the 
enemy  for  the  purpose  of  hindering  the  movements  of  troops,  for 
preventing  the  bringing  up  of  supports,  or  for  interfering  with  the 
action  of  artillery. 


72  DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS. 


Owing  to  the  deadly  nature  of  poison  gas  shells,  however,  the 
precautions  given  in  paragraph  97  above  must  be  taken  for  all 
gas  shells.  The  goggles  are  intended  for  use  after  lachrymatory 
bombardments  only,  in  cases  where  the  irritant  gas  persists  in  the 
neighborhood  of  shell  holes,  etc. 

PRECAUTIONS  TO  BE  TAKEN  WITH  REGARD  TO  OUR 
OWN  USE  OF  GAS  IN  CYLINDERS,  BOMBS,  ETC. 

99.  Protection  of  troops  is  necessary  during  our  own  gas 
attacks.  Adequate  protective  measures  should  always  be  possible, 
as  arrangements  can  be  made  in  advance  and  the  element  of  sur¬ 
prise  can  be  excluded.  The  following  points  should  be  noted: 

Handling  Gas  Cylinders: 

100.  Men  engaged  in  carrying  or  digging-in  gas  cylinders  should 
carry  their  box  respirators  in  the  “  Alert  ”  position. 

Action  When  Gas  Cylinders  Are  in  Position  in  Trenches: 

101.  (a)  Box  respirators  should  be  carried  in  the  “  Alert  ”  po¬ 
sition  by  troops  in  front  line  trenches. 

(5)  If  a  cylinder  is  burst  by  shell-fire,  men  should  retire  up¬ 
wind  for  a  short  distance  if  possible.  Dug-outs  in  the  neighbor¬ 
hood  of  the  burst  must  be  evacuated  at  once. 

Action  During  Our  Gas  Attacks: 

102.  (a)  It  is  advisable  that  all  troops,  except  those  whose 
presence  is  considered  absolutely  necessary,  should  be  withdrawn 
from  the  front  trench  before  gas  is  discharged  Any  officer  or  man 
who  has  special  orders  to  remain  must  tvear  his  box  respirator. 

(6)  All  troops  in  any  part  of  the  line  within  half  a  mile  of 
the  nearest  point  where  gas  is  being  discharged  must  wear  their 
box  respirators. 

(c)  If  troops  advance  after  a  cloud  gas  attack  has  been  made, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  the  gas  may  hang  about  for  a  con¬ 
siderable  time  in  long  grass,  shell  holes  and  hollows,  and  for 
several  hours  in  the  enemv’s  shelters.  Raiding  or  reconnoitring 
parties  after  a  gas  discharge  should  carry  their  respirators  in  the 
Alert  position.  Dug-outs  should  not  be  occupied  until  they  have 
been  thoroughly  ventilated  and  the  absence  of  gas  established. 


DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS.  73 


This  is  equally  necessary  with  regard  to  shelters  which  have  been 
penetrated  by  gas  from  shells  or  bombs. 

Gas  Bombs  and  Grenades: 

103.  These  may,  if  necessary,  be  stored  with  other  ammunition. 
In  the  event  of  leakage  they  should  be  buried  in  the  ground 
feet  deep.  They  should  not  be  thrown  into  water.  All  rescue 
work  and  disposal  of  leaky  shells  should  be  carried  out  by  men 
wearing  box  respirators. 

ACTION  SUBEQUENT  TO  A  GAS  ATTACK. 

General: 

104.  The  most  important  measure  to  be  taken  after  a  cloud 
gas  attack  is  to  prepare  for  a  further  attack.  The  enemy  fre¬ 
quently  sends  several  successive  waves  of  gas  at  intervals  vary¬ 
ing  from  a  few  minutes  up  to  several  hours  and  it  is  therefore 
necessary  to  be  on  the  alert  to  combat  this  procedure.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  measures  should  be  adopted  as  soon  as  the  gas  cloud  has 
passed : 

{a)  Removal  of  respirators. — 'Anti-gas  fans  should  be  used 
to  assist  in  clearing  the  trenches  of  gas,  so  as  to  admit 
of  respirators  being  removed.  Box  respirators  and  hel¬ 
mets  must  not  be  removed  until  permission  has  been 
given  by  the  Company  Commander,  who  will,  when  pos¬ 
sible,  ascertain  from  officers  and  N.C.O’s.  who  have  been 
trained  at  a  Divisional  Gas  School  that  it  is  safe  to 
do  so. 

(5)  Return  to  the  Alert  position. —  So  as  to  be  ready  for  a 
subsequent  attack,  box  respirators  and  helmets  must 
be  put  back  in  the  Alert  position. 

A  sharp  look-out  must  be  kept  for  a  repetition  of  the  gas 
attack,  as  long  as  the  wind  continues  in  a  dangerous  quarter. 

Movement: 

105.  Owing  to  the  enemy  gas  sometimes  causing  bad  after¬ 
effects,  which  are  intensified  by  subsequent  exertion,  the  follow¬ 
ing  points  should  be  attended  to: 

(-a)  No  man  suffering  from  the  effects  of  gas,  however 
slightly,  should  be  allowed  to  walk  to  the  dressing 
station. 


74  DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS. 

(b)  The  clearing  of  the  trenches  and  dug-outs  should  not  be 

carried  out  by  men  who  have  been  affected  by  the  gas. 

(c)  After  a  gas  attack,  troops  in  the  front  trenches  should 

be  relieved  of  all  fatigue  and  carrying  work  for  24 
hours  by  sending  up  working  parties  from  companies 
in  rear. 

(d)  Horses  which  have  been  exposed  to  the  gas  should  not 

be  worked  for  24  hours  if  it  can  be  avoided. 

Clearing  Dug-outs  and  Other  Shelters: 

106.  It  is  essential  that  no  dug-out  be  entered  after  a  gas  at¬ 
tack,  except  with  box  respirators  or  helmets  adjusted,  until  it 
has  been  ascertained  that  it  is  free  from  gas.  The  only  efficient 
method  of  clearing  dug-outs  from  gas  is  by  thorough  ventilation. 
The  older  method  of  spraying  is  not  efficient. 

An  appreciable  quantity  of  gas  may  be  retained  in  the  clothing 
of  men  exposed  to  gas  attacks  and  also  in  bedding,  coats,  etc., 
left  in  shelters.  Precautions  should,  therefore,  be  taken  to  air 
all  clothing. 

Ventilation: 

107.  Natural  Ventilation. — Unless  a  shelter  has  been  thoroughly 
ventilated  by  artificial  means,  as  described  below,  it  must  not  be 
slept  in,  or  occupied  without  wearing  respirators,  until  at  least 
12  hours  have  elapsed.  It  must  not  be  entered  at  all  without  res¬ 
pirators  on  for  at  least  3  hours.  The  above  refers  to  cloud  gas 
attacks.  In  the  case  of  gas  shell  bombardments  the  times  cannot 
be  definitely  stated,  as  they  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  gas 
used  and  the  severity  of  the  bombardment.  With  lachrymatory 
gases  the  times  after  which  shelters  can  be  used  without  dis¬ 
comfort  may  be  considerably  longer  than  those  mentioned  above. 

108.  Ventilation  by  Fire. — All  kinds  of  shelters  can  be  efficiently 
and  rapidly  cleared  of  gas  by  the  use  of  fires.  Shelters  with  two 
openings  are  the  easiest  to  ventilate  and  where  possible  dug- 
outs  with  only  one  entrance  should  have  a  second  opening  made, 
even  a  very  small  one,  to  assist  in  ventilation. 

In  dug-outs  provided  with  a  single  exit  at  the  end  of  a  short 
passage  the  best  results  are  obtained  if  the  fire  is  placed  in  the 
centre  of  the  floor  of  the  dug-out  and  at  a  height  of  about  6 
inches. 


DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS.  75 


In  dug-outs  provided  with  a  single  exit  at  the  end  of  a  long 
and  nearly  horizontal  passage  the  best  results  are  obtained  if 
the  fire  is  placed  about  one-third  of  the  distance  from  the  inner 
end  of  the  passage. 

In  dug-outs  provided  with  two  or  more  exits  the  fire  should  be 
placed  at  the  inner  end  of  one  of  the  exit  passages. 

109.  In  general,  1  lb.  of  dry  wood  per  200  cubic  feet  of  air  space 
is  sufficient  for  clearance  of  any  gas.  The  best  fuel  is  split  wood, 
but  any  fuel  which  does  not  smoulder  or  give  off  thick  smoke  can 
be  used.  The  materials  for  the  fire,  e.  g.,  the  split  wood,  news¬ 
paper,  and  a  small  bottle  of  paraffin  for  lighting  purposes,  should 
be  kept  in  a  sandbag  enclosed  in  a  biscuit  tin  provided  with  a  lid. 
An  improvised  brazier  should  be  kept  ready  for  use. 

The  fire  must  be  kept  burning  for  at  least  ten  minutes  and  the 
atmosphere  in  the  shelter  should  be  tested  from  time  to  time. 

no.  Ventilation  by  Fanning. —  Dug-outs  can  be  ventilated  by 
producing  air  currents  in  them  by  means  of  special  anti-gas  fans. 
A  full  description  of  the  anti-gas  fan  and  the  method  of  using  it 
to  clear  gas  from  trenches  and  shelters  is  given  later  (see  para¬ 
graphs  102-10G). 

If  no  anti-gas  fans  are  available,  ventilation  can  be  assisted 
by  flapping  with  improvised  fans  such  as  sandbags,  ground  sheets, 
etc. 

Sprayers: 

hi.  The  use  of  Vermorel  sprayers  for  clearing  gas  from 
trenches  and  shelters  has  been  given  up.  The  hypo,  solution  has 
very  little  effect  on  phosgene  and  even  with  the  addition  of  other 
chemicals  it  cannot  be  relied  upon  to  remove  this  gas  from  the 
air.  Vermorel  sprayers  have  consequently  been  withdrawn  from 
general  use. 

Cleaning  of  Arms  and  Ammunition. 

1 12.  Rifles  and  machine  guns  must  be  cleaned  after  a  gas  at¬ 
tack  and  then  re-oiled.  Oil  cleaning  will  prevent  corrosion  for  12 
hours  or  more,  but  the  first  available  opportunity  must  be  taken 
to  dismantle  machine  guns  and  clean  all  parts  in  boiling  water 
containing  a  little  soda.  If  this  is  not  done,  corrosion  continues 
slowly  even  after  oil  cleaning  and  may  ultimately  put  the  gun 
out  of  action. 


76  DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS. 

After  a  gas  attack,  S.  A.  A.  should  be  carefully  examined.  All 
rounds  affected  by  gas  must  be  replaced  by  new  cartridges  imme¬ 
diately  and  the  old  ones  cleaned  and  expended  as  soon  as  possible. 

1 13.  All  hand  and  rifle  grenades  exposed  to  the  gas  should 
have  their  safety-pins  and  working  parts  cleaned  and  reoiled. 

1 14.  All  bright  parts  of  light  trench  mortars,  together  with  all 
accessories  and  spare  parts  exposed  to  the  gas,  must  be  cleaned 
and  wiped  dry  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  attack  and  in  any 
case  within  24  hours,  after  which  they  should  be  thoroughly 
coated  afresh  with  oil.  The  same  applies  to  ammunition  which 
may  have  been  exposed  to  the  gas. 

Ammunition  which,  for  any  reason,  had  not  been  oiled,  must  be 
cleaned  and  oiled  and  expended  as  soon  as  possible. 

For  details  regarding  the  cleaning  of  guns  and  artillery  ammu¬ 
nition  and  signal  equipment,  see  paragraphs  156  and  163. 

Treatment  of  Shell  Holes: 

1 15.  In  the  neighborhood  of  shelters  or  battery  positions  where 
gas  from  shell  holes  is  causing  annoyance,  the  holes  and  the 
ground  round  them  should  be  covered  with  at  least  a  foot  of  fresh 
earth.  Shell  holes  so  treated  should  not  be  disturbed,  as  the 
chemical  is  not  thereby  destroyed  and  only  disappears  slowly. 

PART  III.— PROTECTIVE  APPLIANCES. 
INDIVIDUAL  PROTECTIVE  APPLIANCES. 

Box  Respirator: 

Description: 

1 1 6.  The  box  respirator  consists  of  a  box  packed  with  chem¬ 
icals  and  connected  by  means  of  a  flexible  rubber  tube  to  an  im¬ 
pervious  face -piece  or  mask.  The  inspired  air  enters  through  a 
valve  in  the  bottom  of  the  box;  the  expired  air  is  expelled 
through  a  valve  just  outside  the  face-piece.  The  wearer  breathes 
in  and  out  through  a  mouthpiece  inside  the  mask,  breathing 
through  the  nose  being  prevented  by  a  nose-clip  inserted  in  the 
face-piece.  The  latter  is  made  of  gas-proof  fabric  and  is  arranged 
to  fit  the  face  closely,  being  held  in  position  by  two  elastic  bands. 
As  it  encloses  the  eyes,  the  mask  is  fitted  with  two  eyepieces 
which  follow  a  wide  field  of  vision.  These  should  be  treated  with 
anti-dimming  composition,  but  if  necessary  they  can  be  cleaned 


DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS.  77 


without  removing  the  respirator,  by  means  of  folds  in  the  mate¬ 
rial.  The  mouthpiece  can  be  removed  from  the  mouth  to  enable 
the  wearer  to  speak,  without  disturbng  the  fit  of  the  mask.  The 
complete  respirator  is  carried  in  a  special  satchel  which  is  divided 
into  two  compartments,  one  of  which  holds  the  box  and  the  other 
the  mask.  The  box  rests  on  a  metal  saddle  which  raises  it  from 
the  bottom  of  the  satchel  and  allows  the  free  access  of  air. 

Personal  Fitting: 

1 1 7.  It  is  necessary  that  each  man  should  have  a  box  respir¬ 
ator,  the  mask  of  which  fits  his  face  properly.  For  this  reason 
the  face-pieces  are  made  in  four  sizes,  which  are  issued  in  the 
following  proportions: 

No.  1.  Extra  small.  Only  issued  on  special  indent. 

No.  2.  Small.  10  per  cent. 

No.  3.  Medium.  80  per  cent. 

No.  4.  Large.  10  per  cent. 

The  fit  of  each  man’s  mask  must  be  inspected  and  then  tested 
in  a  gas  chamber.  Almost  any  room  which  can  be  closed  up 
tightly  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  but  the  most  suitable  ar¬ 
rangement  is  to  have  a  double  door  or  a  door  and  a  curtain  sim¬ 
ilar  to  the  protected  dug-outs,  so  that  as  little  of  the  gas  as  pos¬ 
sible  escapes  into  the  outer  air.  A  still  better  arrangement  is  to 
use  two  adjoining  rooms,  the  inner  of  which  is  the  actual  gas 
chamber.  A  small  quantity  of  lachrymatory  liquid  is  sprayed  into 
the  room,  and  the  man  enters,  wearing  his  box  respirator.  He 
must  remain  in  the  room  five  minutes  and  move  about  and  talk. 
If  the  mask  does  not  fit,  lachrymation  quickly  ensues  and  the  man 
retires.  He  should  then  be  examined  to  see  whether  the  lack  of 
fit  is  due  to  bad  adjustment  or  to  his  having  a  wrong  size  of 
mask.  In  the  latter  case  a  different  size  must  be  issued  and  the 
test  repeated. 

The  fitting  and  adusting  of  the  mask  cannot  be  too  thoroughly 
carried  out.  Special  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  fitting  of  the 
mask  and  nose-clip  with  men  who  wear  spectacles. 

Method  of  Use: 

1 18.  The  satchel  containing  the  box  respirator  is  carried  out¬ 
side  all  other  equipment.  When  away  from  the  trenches,  it  may 
be  worn  slung  over  the  right  shoulder,  but  men  in  the  trenches 


78  DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS. 


or  proceeding  thitlier  must  carry  it  slung  on  the  chest  as  in  the 
“Alert”  position.  The  flap  of  the  satchel  with  the  press  butttons 
must  always  be  toward  the  body,  but  the  press  buttons  must  be 
kept  fastened,  except  during  an  actual  “Gas  Alert.”  The  method 
of  wearing  the  box  respirator  and  of  putting  it  on  from  the 
“Alert”  position  are  fully  described  in  Chapter  IV.  It  is  import¬ 
ant  that  the  methods  therein  described  should  be  practiced  by  all 
who  are  equipped  with  the  box  respirator,  to  insure  rapidity  in 
adjustment  and  proper  care  in  its  use. 

1 1 9.  Men  with  perforated  ear  drums  may  be  affected  by  the 
gas  penetrating  through  the  ear  passages  to  the  respiratory 
organs  and  causing  irritation  there.  In  these  cases  it  is  useful 
to  plug  the  ears  with  wadding.  C.  Os.  should  ascertain  from  the 
Medical  Officers  in  charge  of  the  units  the  names  of  those  suf¬ 
fering  from  this  disability  in  order  that  the  above  precaution  may 
be  taken. 

*  * 

120.  It  mst  be  remembered  that  the  box  respirator  can  be 
worn  in  gas  for  many  hours  on  end  without  losing  its  efficiency 
or  causing  any  distress.  It  may  be  breathed  through  in  drills 
for  a  period  of  a  quarter  of  an  hour  per  week  for  an  indefinite 
time  without  impairing  it  efficiency.  This  permits  a  drill 
period  of  at  least  an  hour  per  week.  This  is  in  addition  to  the 
initial  drills  referred  to  in  Chapter  IV.,  amounting  to  1  1-2  hours’ 
breathing  through  the  box. 

Replacement.  Record  of  Use: 

1 21.  The  correct  keeping  of  records  as  to  hours  of  use  of  the 
box  lcspirator,  by  entries  in  the  small  book  forming  part  or'  the 
repair  outfit,  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  importance,  as  these 
records  form  the  only  guide  as  to  whether  the  boxes  should  or 
should  not  be  replaced.  Decision  as  to  replacement  should  be 
made  on  the  advice  of  the  Divisional  Gas  Officer.  The  approxi¬ 
mate  time  of  actually  breathing  through  the  box  should  be  noted. 
These  entries  must  always  be  made  after  drills  and  gas  attacks, 
great  care  being  taken  that  they  are  correct. 

Inspection: 

122.  Box  respirators  must  normally  be  inspected  once  a  week 
and  daily  during  “Gas  Alert.” 


DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS.  79 


It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  inspection  should  be 
carried  out  regularly  and  with  the  greatest  care.  Any  neglect 
in  doing  this  may  lead  to  loss  of  life. 

The  points  to  be  attended  to  will  be  found  in  Appendix  II. 

Anti-Dimming  Composition: 

123.  At  the  weekly  inspection  and  after  every  time  the  re¬ 
spirator  is  worn,  the  composition  provided  for  the  purpose  will  be 
put  on  the  eyepieces  in  the  manner  described  in  Chapter  V,  Par. 
172. 

Local  Repairs: 

124.  A  small  repair  outfit,  consisting  of  pieces  of  adhesive 
plaster  is  included,  with  a  record  card,  in  each  satchel. 

Small  perforations  in  the  face -pieces  can  be  made  good  by 
applying  pieces  of  the  adhesive  plaster  to  the  perforation,  both 
inside  and  outside  the  mask.  They  should  be  large  enough  to 
overlap  the  hole  all  round.  Box  respirators  so  repaired  should  be 
exchanged  as  soon  as  possible.  The  repair  is  only  intended  to 
make  them  safe  until  a  new  respirator  can  be  obtained. 

No  other  local  repairs  are  permitted  and  ail  defective  respirators 
must  be  handed  in  and  new  ones  obtained. 

Box  respirators  which  have  fallen  into  water  must  be  ex¬ 
changed  as  soon  as  possible. 

P.  H.  HELMET. 

General: 

125.  The  P.  H.  helmet  is  the  reserve  defense  against  a  gas  at¬ 
tack  and  great  care  must  be  taken  by  officers  to  ensure  that  it 
is  in  good  order  and  that  the  men  have  been  trained  in  its  use. 
The  main  point  to  impress  on  them  is  that  the  chemically-treated 
material  acts  as  a  filter  and  that  all  air  breathed  into  the  lungs 
must  pass  through  the  flannelette.  The  helmet  is,  therefore,  use¬ 
less  unless  properly  tucked  in  under  the  jacket.  During  its  pas¬ 
sage  through  the  material  of  the  helmet  all  poisonous  gas  is  ab¬ 
sorbed  by  the  chemicals.  These  chemicals,  however,  would  be 
gradually  destroyed  by  the  breath  or  by  undue  exposure  to  the 
air,  and  the  helmet  is,  therefore,  provided  with  a  valve  to  breathe 
out  through.  The  helmet  should  not  be  exposed  unnecessarily 
to  the  air.  It  must  be  kept  from  exposure  and  wet  and  only  re¬ 
moved  from  the  wallet  for  inspection  and  drill. 


80  DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS. 
Method  of  Use: 

126.  When  the  box-respirator  is  worn  the  P.  H.  helmet  should 
hang  perpendicularly  downwards  from  the  left  shoulder,  the  sling 
passing  under  the  belt.  It  must  be  over  all  other  equipment. 
Care  is  necessary  in  folding  it  properly  in  the  wallet  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  valve  and  eye-pieces  are  not  damaged  and  that 
it  can  be  put  on  in  the  quickest  possible  time.  The  method  of 
folding  is  described  in  Chapter  V. 

127.  If,  for  any  reason,  a  man  has  to  rely  on  a  P.  H.  helmet 
for  his  anti-gas  protection,  he  should  wear  it  during  “  Gas  Alert  ” 
periods  in  the  manner  prescribed  in  Chapter  IV.  All  equipment 
should  be  adjusted  so  that  nothing  interferes  with  the  rapid  put¬ 
ting  on  of  the  helmet. 

Drill: 

128.  Helmet  drill  should  be  carried  out  frequently  by  all  ranks. 

It  should  aim  at  teaching  the  quick  adjustment  of  helmets  under 
all  conditions,  accustoming  men  to  wearing  them  for  a  long  time 
and  taking  exercise  in  them.  Drill  must  be  carried  out  both  with 
and  without  greatcoats  and  equipment  and  by  night  as  well  as 
by  day.  The  points  to  be  attended  to  in  helmet  drill  are  speci¬ 
fied  in  Chapter  IV. 

Inspection  of  Helmets: 

129.  Helmets  must  be  inspected  once  a  week  and  daily  during 
“  Gas  Alert.”  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  this  inspection 
should  be  carried  out  regularly  and  with  the  greatest  care.  Any 
neglect  in  doing  this  may  lead  to  loss  of  life.  The  points  to  be 
attended  to  will  be  found  in  Chapter  V. 

Replacement  and  Repair: 

130.  Helmets  will  be  withdrawn  as  follows: 

( 1 )  Immediately  after  a  cloud  gas  attack. 

(2)  After  being  worn  for  a  total  period  of  24  hours  in  gas 

shell  bombardments,  false  gas  attacks  or  drill. 

(3)  After  being  carried  for  28  days  in  the  “Alert”  position. 
Slight  defects,  such  as  the  cross-threading  of  eye-pieces,  should 

be  rectified  locally  with  the  help  of  the  Company  Gas  N.C.O. 
Helmets  the  defects  of  which  cannot  immediately  be  rectified  must 
be  condemned. 


DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS.  81 


Anti-Gas  Goggles: 

13 1.  Goggles  for  use  against  lachrymatory  gas  will  be  carried 
in  the  helmet  satchel  by  all  ranks.  They  will  be  inspected  weekly, 
and  treated  with  anti-dimming  composition,  in  the  manner  de¬ 
scribed  in  Chapter  V. 

Horse  Respirators: 

132.  A  full  description  of  the  Horse  Respirator  and  the  method 
of  using  it  is  given  in  Chapter  VI. 

B.— ANTI-GAS  APPLIANCES  FOR  GENERAL  USE. 
Strombos  Horns: 

General: 

133.  The  experience  gained  in  recent  gas  attacks  has  shown  that 
Strombos  Horns  are  the  most  effective  form  of  gas  alarm  appli¬ 
ance  and  are  audible  for  very  long  distances. 

Description: 

134.  Each  horn  is  issued  in  a  box  containing  one  horn,  two 
compressed-air  cylinders,  one  length  of  rubber  tubing  with  screw 
connections,  one  screwdriver,  one  gimlet  and  one  adjustable  span¬ 
ner.  One  spare  cylinder  is  issued  with  the  horn,  to  be  kept  at 
the  Divisional  or  Brigade  H.Q.  to  replace  used  cylinders  without 
delay  A  reserve  of  charged  cylinders  is  also  kept  at  the  Heavy 
Mobile  Workshop. 

Method  of  Use: 

135.  The  horn  should  be  mounted  in  a  horizontal  position  by 
screwing  to  the  outside  of  the  case  or  to  some  other  suitable  sup¬ 
port  and  must  be  protected  as  much  as  possible  from  rain  or  shell 
splinters.  Should  it  be  necessary  to  change  its  position,  the  horn 
should  be  fixed  in  the  box  by  means  of  the  butterfly  nuts  pro¬ 
vided.  Strombos  horns  must  always  be  ready  for  use,  the  horn 
being  connected  to  one  of  the  compressed-air  cylinders  by  the 
rubber  tube.  The  union  joints  at  both  ends  of  the  tube  must 
be  tight. 

136.  To  sound  the  horn,  unscrew  the  screw  cap  on  the  air 
cylinder  two  complete  turns.  The  horn  will  sound  for  about  one 
minute. 


82  DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS. 


Immediately  after  use,  couple  up  the  horn  to  thp  second  air 
cylinder  and  leave  it  ready  for  use  in  case  of  a  second  gas  cloud. 
The  used  cylinder  should  be  clearly  marked  Empty  and  replaced 
as  soon  as  possible  from  the  reserve. 

Replacement  and  Repair: 

137.  The  pressure  of  the  cylinders  will  be  tested  under  arrange¬ 
ments  made  by  the  Divisional  Gas  Officer  once  every  week  and 
defective  ones  returned  through  D.A.D.O.S.  for  recharging  at  the 
Heavy  Mobile  Workshop. 

On  no  account  is  any  adjustment  of  the  horn  to  be  attempted 
except  by  the  Divisional  Gas  Officer  or  his  trained  Divisional  Gas 
N.C.O’s.  A  horn  will  be  thrown  completely  out  of  action  by 
movement  of  any  of  its  parts. 

Damaged  horns  must  be  sent  to  the  Army  Heavy  Mobile  Work¬ 
shop  for  repairs. 

Other  Gas  Alarm  Devices: 

138.  No  definite  pattern  has  been  adopted  for  secondary  alarm 
devices  suitable  for  installing  at  every  sentry  post.  Bells,  gongs 
( shell  cases ) ,  suspended  rails  and  other  appliances  are  all  in  use, 
but  single  bells  and  gongs  are  generally  too  weak  and  all  these 
arrangements  suffer  from  requiring  the  use  of  a  man’s  hands. 

A  very  suitable  arrangement  as  an  alarm  is  a  triangle  of 
light  steel  rail,  mounted  in  such  a  way  that  it  can  be  beaten  by 
working  a  treadle.  It  can  thus  be  sounded  by  a  sentry  while  he 
is  putting  on  his  respirator  or  helmet.  Similar  devices  not  re¬ 
quiring  the  use  of  the  hands  should  be  devised  and  installed  where 
feet  long. 

Anti-Gas  Fans: 

139.  The  Anti-Gas  Fan  consists  of  a  sheet  of  canvass  supported 
by  braces  of  cane  and  reinforced  in  the  middle.  It  is  made  with 
two  transverse  hinges  and  is  fitted  with  a  hickory  handle.  The 
flapping  portion  is  roughly  15  inches  square  and  the  handle  is  2 
long. 

METHOD  OF  USE. 

Clearing  Trenches: 

140.  The  fan  blade  is  placed  on  the  ground  with  the  brace  side 
downwards,  the  man  using  it  being  in  a  slightly  crouching  position 


DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS.  83 


with  the  left  foot  advanced,  the  right  hand  grasping  the  handle 
at  the  neck  and  the  left  hand  near  the  butt  end.  The  fan  is 
brought  up  quickly  over  the  right  shoulder,  and  then  smartly 
flicked  to  the  ground  with  quick  slapping  strokes.  This  drives 
a  current  of  air  along  the  earth  and,  on  the  top  strokes,  throws 
the  gas  out  of  the  trench  as  it  were  by  a  shovel. 

It  is  essential  that  the  part  of  the  fan  blade  nearest  the  handle 
should  touch  the  ground  first,  and  this  can  be  accomplished  in  all 
cases  by  ending  the  stroke  with  the  whole  length  of  the  handle  as 
close  to  the  ground  as  possible. 

141.  In  working  round  a  traverse,  etc.,  the  fan  should  be  flapped 
round  the  corner  with  the  hinge  on  the  corner  and  the  lower  edge 
of  the  fan  as  near  the  bottom  of  the  trench  as  can  be  managed. 
The  brace  side  of  the  fan  is  to  be  outwards  and  at  the  end  of  the 
stroke  the  whole  length  of  the  handle  should  be  close  up  to  the 
side  of  the  trench. 

If  several  fans  are  available,  men  should  work  in  single  file 
and  with  “  out-of-step  ”  strokes,  i.  e.,  one  fan  should  be  up  while 
the  next  is  down. 

Clearing  Shelters : 

142.  In  the  case  of  a  dug-out  with  a  single  entrance  not  exceed¬ 
ing  12  feet  in  length,  the  gas  is  first  cleared  from  the  neighbor¬ 
hood  of  the  shelter  as  in  103  and  then  the  corners  worked  round 
as  in  104.  The  worker  now  advances  to  the  inner  end  of  the 
entrance,  beating  rather  slowly  on  the  ground  to  allow  the  gas 
time  to  get  out  of  the  tunnel  and  bringing  the  fan  as  near  the 
roof  as  possible  on  the  return  stroke. 

It  may  be  desirable  to  have  a  second  fan  working  just  outside 
the  dug-out  to  throw  the  gas  out  of  the  trench  as  it  comes  out. 

143.  In  the  case  of  dug-outs  with  two  entrances  or  with  one 
entrance  and  another  opening,  such  as  a  chimney,  it  is  only  neces¬ 
sary  to  use  the  fan  round  the  corner  of  one  entrance  in  the 
manner  described  in  141.  When  the  entrance  is  cleared,  it  is 
advisable  to  enter  the  shelter  with  a  respirator  on  in  order  to 
beat  up  the  gas  from  the  floor  boards,  etc.  This  greatly  facilitates 
the  removal  of  the  last  traces  of  gas. 

Vermorel  Sprayers: 

144.  Vermorel  sprayers  are  withdrawn  from  general  use  for 
clearing  out  gas  after  an  attack,  but  a  certain  number  are  re- 


84  DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS. 


tained  for  moistening  the  blankets  of  protected  shelters  and  for 
use  in  medical  dug-outs,  etc.  They  should  be  kept  for  this  pur¬ 
pose  only  and  on  no  account  relied  on  for  clearing  trenches  or 
shelters  of  gas. 

145.  Company  Vermorel  Sprayers. — -Sprayers  on  the  basis  of 
two  per  Company  are  retained  for  moistening  blanket  protection. 
They  should  be  kept  by  Company  Gas  N.  C.  O’s.  with  other  anti¬ 
gas  trench  stores,  and  should  be  kept  one -third  full  of  water. 
The  solution  must  be  kept  in  corked  rum  jars  or  other  closed 
receptacles  close  to  each  sprayer;  it  must  not  be  kept  in  the. 
sprayers  owing  to  its  corrosive  nature.  It  is  made  up  as  follows: 

Water,  3  gallons  (one  large  bucket). 

Sodium  Thiosulphate  (hypo.),  1^  lbs.  (f  mess-tin). 

Sodium  Carbonate  (washing  soda),  3  lbs.  (1£  mess-tins). 

Three  rum  jars  are  required  to  hold  the  above  quantity  and 
the  necessity  for  keeping  them  corked  must  be  impressed  on 
the  personnel  responsible  for  it. 

When  no  solution  is  obtainable,  water  may  be  used  for  spray¬ 
ing  the  blankets. 

Gas  Sampling  Apparatus: 

146.  It  is  very  desirable  that  samples  be  obtained  of  the  enemy 
gas  used  in  attacks,  especially  cloud  gas  attacks.  For  this  pur¬ 
pose  two  kinds  of  appliances  are  kept  in  the  trenches,  viz. :  Vac¬ 
uum  Bulbs  and  Gas-testing  Tubes.  These  should  be  looked  after 
by  the  Company  Gas  N.C.O’s,  whose  duty  it  is  to  take  the  samples, 
but  officers  should  take  all  possible  steps  to  ensure  that  samples 
of  the  gas  are  actually  taken,  as  the  information  obtained  may 
be  of  the  greatest  importance. 

Full  details  of  the  methods  of  taking  samples  are  laid  down  in 
“  Standing  Orders  for  Company  Gas  N.  C.  O’s.”  (Chapter  X.) 

PART  4. 

CONSIDERATIONS  AFFECTING  SPECIAL  ARMS. 

147.  The  foregoing  notes  apply  to  all  arms  and  are  complete  as 
regards  considerations  of  gas  defense  affecting  troops  in  trenches 
generally.  Additional  information  for  the  guidance  of  other  arms 
on  anti-gas  measures  which  affect  them  specially  is  given  below. 


DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS.  85 


CAVALRY. 

148.  It  is  unlikely  that  Cavalry,  when  mounted,  will  encounter 

high  concentrations  of  gas  from  a  gas  cloud,  or  even  from  gas 
shells.  It  will  probably  be  found  therefore  that,  when  acting  as 
mounted  troops,  the  P.  H.  helmet  will  be  adequate  protection, 
besides  being  less  cumbersome  for  troops  depending  on  their 
mobility.  ~ 

149.  On  the  other  hand,  Cavalry  used  to  supplement  Infantry 
in  the  line,  or  employed  as  working  parties  in  or  near  the  trenches, 
must  be  equipped  for  gas  defense  in  the  same  way  as  other  arms. 
In  this  case,  it  is  impossible  to  wear  the  bandolier  over  the 
shoulder  when  the  box  respirator  is  worn  in  the  “  Alert  ”  position. 
During  the  Gas  Alert  period,  mounted  troops  must  therefore  wear 
the  bandolier  round  the  waist.  This  can  be  accomplished  as 
follows  (Fig.  1): 

150.  (1)  Unfasten  the  buckle  D. 

(2)  Pull  out  strap  A  from  the  metal  triangle  C. 

(3)  Pass  the  bandolier  round  the  waist. 

(4)  Pass  strap  A  from  behind  forwards  through  the 

aperture  E,  situated  under  pouch  H.  (This  aperture 
may  have  to  be  slightly  enlarged.) 

(5)  Pull  on  strap  A  until  the  bandolier  fits  and  buckle  off 

to  D. 

(6)  Strap  Bl,  with  the  attached  buckle  B,  and  triangle  C, 

can  now  be  tucked  away  under  the  bandolier  to  the 
right,  behind  pouches  H  and  M. 

(7)  For  thin  subjects,  it  may  be  better  to  pass  strap  A 

through  the  aperture  F  between  pouches  H  and  M 
before  buckling  it  off  to  D,  so  as  to  make  the 
bandolier  tighter. 

ARTILLERY. 

General: 

151.  Artillery  are  probably  more  liable  than  anyone  else  to 
bombardment  with  gas  shells,  both  poisonous  and  lachrymatory. 
Owing  to  the  suddenness  of  shell  attacks  and  the  long  period  that 
the  neighborhood  of  a  battery  may  be  affected  by  lachrymators, 
it  is  essential  that  the  following  points  be  noted: 

[a)  Where,  owing  to  circumstances,  box  respirators  are  not 
actually  worn  on  the  man,  they  must  be  hung  sepa- 


DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS.  87 


rately  and  within  easy  reach  of  the  owners.  (They 
should  not,  if  possible,  be  hung  in  the  actual  gun 
emplacements,  owing  to  the  concussion  being  liable 
to  displace  the  chemicals  in  the  box.)  If  this  course 
has  to  be  adopted,  the  respirators  should  be  ready 
prepared  with  the  haversack  sling  shortened  by  means 
of  the  tab  and  stud  and  the  slack  of  the  sling  tucked 
under  the  mask  as  in  the  “  Alert  ”  position.  The 
satchel  flap  should  be  unbuttoned,  but  kept  in  position. 

Men  must  be  thoroughly  practiced  in  getting  their 
respirators  on  in  the  shortest  possible  time  when  they 
are  stored  in  this  manner. 

The  P.  H.  helmet  will,  in  any  case,  always  be  carried  on 
the  man  in  case  of  emergency. 

(b)  Men  must  be  well  practiced  in  wearing  their  box  respira¬ 
tors  for  long  periods  and  in  serving  their  guns  while 
wearing  respirators  or  anti-gas  goggles. 

152.  Omitted  on  account  of  being  obsolete. 

153.  Omitted  on  account  of  being  obsolete. 

154.  Omitted  on  account  of  being  obsolete. 

Forward  Observing  Parties: 

155.  Forward  observing  parties  must  take  all  the  precautions 
previously  laid  down  for  Infantry. 

Preservation  of  Guns  and  Ammunition: 

156.  The  following  precautions  apply  to  medium  and  heavy 
trench  mortars  as  well  as  to  guns  and  howitzers: 

Protection: 

Batteries  which  are  in  constant  danger  of  gas  attacks,  whether 
from  gas  clouds  or  gas  shells,  should  keep  all  bright  parts  of  the 
gun  or  mortar,  carriage,  mounting  and  accessories  well  coated 
with  oil. 

Sights  and  all  instruments  should  also  be  smeared  with  oil  and 
protected  with  covers  when  not  in  actual  use,  care  being  taken 
that  the  oil  does  not  come  in  contact  with  any  glass  or  find  its 
way  into  the  interior  of  the  instrument. 


88  DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS. 


Cartridge  cases  of  the  ammunition  stored  with  the  Battery  and 
all  uncapped  fuses,  or  fuses  which  have  been  removed  from  their 
cylinders,  should  be  wiped  over  with  oil  as  soon  as  possible  and 
protected  with  a  cover. 

Cleaning: 

All  bright  parts  of  guns  and  trench  mortars,  together  with  all 
accessories  and  spare  parts  exposed  to  the  gas,  must  be  cleaned 
and  wiped  dry  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  attack,  and  in  any 
case  within  24  hours,  after  which  they  should  be  thoroughly 
coated  afresh  with  oil. 

The  same  applies  to  the  whole  of  the  ammunition  still  in  the 
Battery  position.  Ammunition  which,  for  any  reason,  had  not 
been  oiled,  must  be  cleaned  and  oiled.  It  is  desirable  to  expend 
it  as  soon  as  possible. 

Aiming  Points  and  Aiming  Posts: 

157.  Aiming  points  and  aiming  posts  are  liable  to  be  obscured 
by  the  gas  cloud  and  arrangements  should,  therefore,  be  made 
in  every  Battery  to  meet  this  eventuality  by  providing  gun  pits 
with  means  to  check  the  line  of  fire  if  necessary,  without  depend¬ 
ing  on  the  use  of  aiming  posts. 

Tactical  Measures  During  a  Gas  Attack: 

158.  Enemy  gas  attacks  may  be  executed  for  purposes  other 
than  the  preparation  of  a  subsequent  infantry  attack.  During  the 
gas  discharge  a  heavy  artillery  fire  on  the  actual  trenches  whence 
the  gas  is  issuing  is  the  best  way  of  dealing  with  the  situation. 
Also  it  is  essential  that  the  gas  discharge  should  be  interfered 
with  as  early  as  possible,  as  the  opening  periods  of  the  discharge 
are  the  most  effective. 

159.  To  insure  an  effective  and  immediate  artillery  fire  the 
following  points  require  attention  :  — 

(a)  Certain  howitzer  Batteries  should  be  detailed  to  open  a 
rapid  fire  for  a  short  time  as  an  anti-gas  measure. 

(&)  Only  certain  portions  of  the  enemy’s  front  trenches  can  be 
used  for  gas  discharge  in  any  given  wind  and  these  can 
easily  be  indicated  on  any  accurate  trench  map.  Each 
Battery  charged  .with  the  task  of  hampering  an  enemy 
gas  attack  should  be  provided  with  a  map  and  a  table, 


Photo  from  Underwood  tC-  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

RESPIRATOR  DRILL  FOR  THE  MEN  GOING  INTO  THE 

TRENCHES. 

This  photograph  shows  a  squad  of  the  British  Guards  at  respirator 
drill  before  going  into  the  trenches.  The  men  who  are  taking  part 
in  the  great  British  offensive  on  the  Western  front  go  through  this 
drill  both  before  and  after  leaving  the  trenches. 


DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS.  89 


showing  from  what  portions  of  the  enemy’s  lines  (within 
the  Battery’s  zone  of  action)  gas  can  be  discharged  in 
any  given  wind. 

160.  Nothing  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs  in  any  way  affects 
the  responsibility  of  artillery  for  dealing  with  any  infantry 
attack,  or  for  the  execution  of  counter-battery  work. 

(C).—  TUNNELING  COMPANIES. 

161.  (i)  Tunneling  companies  are  again  reminded  that  neither 
the  box  respirator  nor  the  P.  H.  helmet  affords  protection  against 
mine  or  explosion  gases. 

(ii)  Owing  to  the  difficulty  in  clearing  gas,  especially  lachry¬ 
matory  gas,  from  mine-shafts  and  galleries,  the  entrances  to 
mine-shafts  should  be  protected  from  gas  by  blanket  curtains  in 
the  manner  already  described  for  dug-outs. 

(iii)  The  enemy  has  occasionally  attempted  to  render  our  gal¬ 
leries  untenable  by  the  use  of  lachrymatory  bombs  in  conjunction 
with  the  explosion  of  a  charge.  If  this  is  done,  goggles  will  gen¬ 
erally  be  found  sufficient  protection;  but  if  the  concentration  is 
so  high  as  to  affect  the  nose  or  lungs,  the  box  respirator  must  be 
worn  if  work  has  to  be  continued. 

SIGNAL  SERVICE  AND  TELEPHONE  OPERATORS. 
General: 

162.  It  is  essential  that  telephone  operators  should  be  able  to 
work  as  much  as  possible  during  a  gas  attack  without  wearing 
respirators  or  helmets.  Signal  dug-outs  must,  therefore,  be  par¬ 
ticularly  carefully  protected  against  gas,  so  as  to  allow  this  to 
be  done. 

Telephone  operators  must  be  specially  practiced  in  using  their 
instruments  when  wearing  box  respirators  or  helmets.  The  head- 
piece  of  the  receiver  will  be  worn  over  the  helmet.  The  buzzer 
should  be  used  when  the  respirator  or  helmet  is  worn. 

Linesmen  must  receive  plenty  of  practice  in  carrying  on  their 
work,  both  at  night  and  in  the  daytime,  while  wearing  box 
respirators  and  also  goggles. 

PRESERVATION  OF  SIGNAL  EQUIPMENT. 
Protection  of  Telephone  Instruments: 

163.  The  only  effective  method  of  preventing  corrosion  of 
electrical  apparatus  during  a  gas  attack  is  to  prevent  the  gas 
reaching  it,  and  the  best  way  of  doing  this  is  to  have  Signal 
Shelters  and  Offices  thoroughly  protected  against  gas.  As  the 


90  DEFENSIVE  MEASURES  AGAINST  GAS  ATTACKS. 


corrosive  effect  on  damp  instruments  is  very  much  greater  than 
on  dry  instruments,  the  shelters  should  be  kept  as  dry  as  possible. 

During  a  gas  attack,  D.  Mk.  III.  telephones  must  be  kept  in 
their  leather  cases  and  unless  the  buzzer  key  is  being  used  the 
leather  flap  must  be  kept  down,  leaving  only  the  cords  with 
receiver  and  hand-set  out  of  the  case.  The  backs  of  switchboards 
and  buzzer  exchanges  must  be  kept  closed.  All  apparatus,  such 
as  magneto  telephones,  test  boards,  spare  instruments,  etc.,  which 
it  is  not  essential  to  have  uncovered  should  be  well  covered  up 
with  cloths,  blankets  or  coats,  etc. 

Cleaning  Instruments  After  a  Gas  Attack: 

164.  After  a  gas  attack,  telephone  apparatus  that  has  been 
exposed  to  gas  should  be  treated  as  follows:  — 

The  ends  of  the  wires  should  be  removed  from  terminals  and 
cleaned  by  being  scraped  with  a  knife,  wiped  with  a  damp  cloth 
and  dried.  Terminals,  exchange  plugs  and  all  exposed  metal 
work  should  be  cleaned  first  with  a  damp  and  then  with  a  dry 
cloth.  This  process  should  be  repeated  after  12  hours  have 
elapsed.  The  metal  work  of  the  leather  case  of  the  D.  Mk.  III. 
telephone  and  of  other  instrument  cases  should  be  cleaned  with 
oil  in  the  same  way  as  rifles,  etc.  The  internal  portions  of  the 
instruments  should  not  be  interfered  with.  If  an  instrument 
has  been  kept  closed  or  covered  up,  it  is  very  unlikely  that  internal 
portions  will  have  suffered;  but  if  these  portions  show  signs  of 
corrosion,  the  instruments  should  be  sent  back  to  Division  or 
Corps  Headquarters  to  be  dealt  with  by  an  Instrument  Repairer. 

Protection  of  Carrier  Pigeons: 

165.  When  the  gas  alarm  is  sounded,  all  baskets  containing 
pigeons  should  be  placed  in  the  special  Anti -Gas  Bags  provided 
for  this  purpose,  or  placed  in  gas-proof  shelters.  If  for  any 
reason  the  birds  cannot  be  protected  from  the  gas,  they  should 
be  liberated  at  once.  Anti-gas  bags  should  always  be  kept  near 
baskets  containing  birds,  and  should  be  regularly  inspected. 

Pigeons  can  be  uw.^ed  during  a  gas  attack.  Experience  has 
proved  that  they  will  fly  through  any  gas  cloud,  but  it  is  impera¬ 
tive  that  the  bird  should  be  exposed  to  the  gas  for  as  short  a 
time  as  possible.  The  message  and  carrier  should,  therefore,  be 
prepared  and  if  possible,  fastened  to  the  pigeon’s  leg,  before  the 
bird  is  exposed  to  the  gas.  Twenty  seconds  should  suffice  to  fix 
a  carrier  and  liberate  a  bird. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

DRILLS  WITH  BOX  RESPIRATORS  AND  HELMETS. 

Part  i. —  Practice  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  H. 

Practice  “A”: 

166.  Adjustment  of  the  Box  Respirator  in  the  “  Alert  ”  position. 

Hang  the  box  respirator  round  the  neck  with  the  press  buttons 
next  the  body.  With  the  right  hand  seize  the  satchel  by  the 
leather  tab,  with  the  left  hand  seize  the  sling  by  the  brass  but¬ 
ton  and  clip  this  into  the  leather  tab.  Undo  the  press  buttons, 
closing  the  satchel. 

The  length  of  whipcord  will  then  be  withdrawn  from  the  right- 
hand  compartment,  passed  through  the  ring  on  the  right  of  the 
satchel  and  carried  round  the  waist  to  the  ring  on  the  left, 
where  it  is  fastened  The  press  buttons  closing  the  satchel  will 
be  left  undone,  but  the  flap  will  be  put  in  position  to  keep  the 
respirator  from  wet. 

Practice  “  B 

Drill  “  by  numbers  ”  to  obtain  correct  adjustment  of  the  Box 
Respirator. 

Note. —  This  drill  is  to  be  carried  out  alternately  with  one 
“  judging  the  time,”  i.  e.,  as  quick  adjustment  as  possible.  It  is 
the  most  important  and  complete  adjustment  must  be  obtained 
by  all  ranks  in  Six  Seconds. 

Adjust  the  respirator  in  the  alert  position  with  satchel  covered 
but  not  buttoned. 

1.  On  the  command  “  One  ”  place  the  left  hand  on  the  cheek 
and  knock  off  steel  helmet  on  to  left  wrist  from  behind  with  the 
right  hand,  press  down  both  thumbs  between  the  satchel  and  the 
body  and  open  the  satchel  flap.  Immediately  seize  the  mask  with 
the  right  hand,  the  metal  elboAV  tube  just  outside  the  mask  being 
in  the  palm  of  the  hand  and  the  thumb  and  first  finger  grasping 
the  wire  frame  of  the  nose  clip. 

2.  On  the  command  “  Two  ”  bring  the  mask  smartly  out  of  the 
satchel  and  hold  it  in  both  hands  with  all  the  fingers  outside 
round  the  binding  and  the  two  thumbs  inside,  pointing  inwards 
and  upwards  under  the  elastic.  At  the  same  time  throw  the  chin 
well  forward  ready  to  enter  the  mask  opposite  the  nose  clip. 


92  DRILLS  WITH  BOX  RESPIRATORS  AND  HELMETS. 

3.  On  the  command  “  Three  ”  bring  the  mask  forward,  digging 
the  chin  into  it  and  with  the  same  motion  bringing  the  elastic 
bands  back  over  the  crown  of  the  head  to  the  full  extent  of  the 
retaining  tape,  using  the  thumbs. 

4.  On  the  command  “  Four  ”  seize  the  metal  elbow  tube  out¬ 
side  the  mask,  thumb  on  the  right,  fingers  on  the  left  —  all  point¬ 
ing  towards  the  face.  Push  the  rubber  mouthpiece  well  into 
the  mouth  and  pull  it  forward  until  the  rim  of  the  mouthpiece 
lies  between  the  teeth  and  the  lips  and  the  two  rubber  grips  are 
held  by  the  teeth. 

5.  On  the  command  “  Five  ”  adjust  the  nose  clip  to  the  nose, 
using  the  thumb  and  first  three  fingers  of  the  right  hand.  Run 
the  fingers  round  the  mask  on  either  side  of  the  face  to  make 
sure  that  the  edges  are  not  folded  over.  Correct  any  faults  in 
adjustment.  Come  smartly  to  attention. 

Practice  “C”: 

To  adjust  Box  Respirators  when  carried  over  the  shoulder  and 
not  in  Alert  position. 

Sling  the  satchel  round  so  that  it  hangs  in  front  of  the  body. 
Undo  the  press  buttons  and  adjust  the  mask  as  in  Practice  “  B," 
allowing  the  satchel  to  hang  by  the  rubber  tube. 

After  the  nose  clip  is  put  on,  at  once  proceed  to  adjust  the 
satchel  in  the  Alert  position,  as  in  practice  “  A.” 

Practice  “  D 

Drill  to  teach  cleaning  of  eyepieces. 

On  the  command  “  Clean  Eyepieces  ”  the  right  eyepiece  will  be 
gripped  between  the  thumb  and  first  finger  of  the  left  hand.  The 
first  finger  of  the  right  hand  will  then  be  pushed  gently  into  the 
fold  of  the  mask  behind  the  right  eyepiece  which  will  be  cleaned 
with  a  gentle  circular  motion. 

The  left  eyepiece  will  be  cleaned  in  a  similar  way. 

Practice  “  E 

Drill  to  teach  method  of  giving  orders. 

It  is  first  explained  to  a  squad  that  the  nose  clip  must  not 
be  removed  to  talk  and  that  before  each  sentence  is  spoken  a  long 
breath  must  be  taken  and  the  mouthpiece  removed  sideways  from 


DRILLS  WITH  BOX  RESPIRATORS  AND  HELMETS.  93 

the  mouth  by  turning  the  metal  tube  outside  the  mask  to  one 
side.  After  speaking,  the  mouthpiece  is  replaced. 

The  squad  should  then  be  numbered  off,  extended  to  four  paces, 
and  orders  passed  along  the  line. 

Officers  and  N.C.Os.  will  receive  special  care  in  Practice  “  E.” 

Practice  “  F  ”  : 

Drill  to  teach  method  of  clearing  mask  from  gas  which  may 
have  leaked  in  and  is  affecting  the  eyes. 

Press  the  mask  close  to  the  face,  forcing  out  foul  air  round 
the  sides  and  then  fill  again  with  fresh  air  from  the  lungs  by 
blowing  out  round  the  mouthpiece. 

Practice  “  G 

Drill  to  teach  method  of  testing  whether  trench  or  dugout  is 
free  from  gas. 

With  the  right  hand  open  the  facepiece  away  from  the  right 
cheek,  then  loosen  the  nose  clip  on  the  nose  and  smell  gently  (do 
not  take  a  breath ) .  If  gas  is  smelt,  the  nose  clip  and  mask  are 
replaced.  Then  as  in  Drill  “  F  ”  if  no  gas  is  smelled,  left  hand 
is  removed  from  nose  clip  and  placed  under  facepiece  on  left 
cheek.  Mask  is  then  removed  with  both  hands. 

Practice  “  H 

Ordinary  infantry  drill  will  be  carried  out  while  wearing  the 
mask.  This  will  include  doubling  for  at  least  200  yards  at  a 
time.  Marching  order  will  be  worn.  Musketry  and  bombing  in¬ 
struction  and  training  of  specialists  (including  artillery,  ma¬ 
chine  gunners,  signallers,  medical  corps)  will  also  be  carried  out. 

PART  2.— TUBE  HELMET  DRILL. 

166-A.  Helmet  drill  should  be  carried  out  frequently  by  all 
ranks.  It  should  aim  at  teaching  the  quick  adjustment  of  hel¬ 
mets  under  all  conditions,  accustoming  men  to  wearing  them  for 
a  long  time  and  taking  exercise  in  them.  Drill  must  be  carried 
out  both  with  and  without  greatcoats  and  equipment  and  by 
night  as  well  as  by  day. 

Men  may  use  their  own  helmets  for  drill  purposes.  Tube  hel¬ 
mets  which  have  been  worn  for  24  hours  for  drill  will  be  replaced. 


94  DRILLS  WITH  BOX  RESPIRATORS  AND  HELMETS. 


The  following  points  are  to  he  noted : 

( i )  Men  must  be  timed  against  a  watch  in  removing  the  hel¬ 
met  from  its  wallet  getting  it  over  the  head  and  gripped 
at  the  neck  with  one  hand  so  that  the  material  is  tight 
all  around.  This  should  take  less  than  6  seconds  and  the 
importance  of  continual  carrying  out  of  this  practice 
cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized.  Men  should  be  taught 
to  hold  the  breath  while  putting  on  the  helmet,  as  a 
few  breaths  drawn  in  concentrated  gas  may  be  followed 
by  serious  results.  The  remainder  of  the  adjustment  is 
to  be  completed  with  the  free  hand  before  the  hand  be¬ 
low  the  chin  is  removed.  Officers  should  turn  up  the 
collars  of  their  jackets  after  the  skirt  of  the  helmet  has 
been  tucked  in,  fixing  them  in  front  by  means  of  a  safety 
pin  carried  for  the  purpose  or  by  a  special  button.  Many 
cases  of  “  gassing  ”  have  been  caused  by  helmets  not  be¬ 
ing  tucked  in  properly  under  the  jacket.  It  is  desirable 
for  all  ranks  to  turn  up  their  collars  after  completing 
the  adjustment. 

(ii)  It  must  be  seen  that  every  man  is  breathing  out  through 
the  valve. 

(iii)  Men  must  be  warned  that  during  a  gas  attack  the  smell 
of  the  chemical  on  the  helmet  becomes  stronger  and 
causes  slight  irritation  of  the  eyes,,  nose  and  throat  and 
that  this  smell  does  not  indicate  that  the  gas  is  com¬ 
ing  through  the  helmet. 

(iv)  Men  must  be  taught  that  misty  eyepieces  can  be  cleared 
by  rubbing  them  against  the  forehead. 

Gas  Alert  Position: 

167.  If,  for  any  reason  a  man  has  only  a  P.H.  helmet  for  use 
as  anti-gas  protection,  he  should  wear  it  as  follows  during  the 
alert  period : 

( 1 )  Put  the  helmet  on  in  the  usual  way.  Pin  the  front  edge 
of  the  helmet  and  the  top  edge  of  the  opened  wallet  to 
the  shirt  with  two  safety  pins  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  helmet  may  be  readily  pulled  on  and  off  the  head 
without  removing  the  pins,  the  wallet  hanging  loose 
below  it. 


DRILLS  WITH  BOX  RESPIRATORS  AND  HELMETS.  95 


(2)  Leaving  the  safety  pins  in  position,  remove  the  helmet 

and  fold  the  sides  over  the  eyepieces  to  the  usual  width, 
keeping  the  valve  horizontal  and  flat.  Now,  roll  up 
the  helmet  and  tuck  it  inside  the  jacket.  Cover  with 
the  wallet  by  pulling  up  the  latter  so  that  it  lies  in 
front  of  the  helmet  and  button  up  the  jacket  with  the 
exception  of  the  two  upper  buttons. 

(3)  On  the  gas  alarm  sounding,  open  the  coat  so  that  the 

helmet  falls,  pull  the  latter  over  the  head  and  adjust 
in  the  usual  manner.  Quick  adjustment  is  essential, 
and  the  “  chin  grip  ”  should  be  obtained  in  two  sec¬ 
onds.  The  wallet  hangs  suspended  by  the  pins  and  is. 
ready  for  use  if  required. 

All  equipment  should  be  adjusted  so  as  not  to  interfere  with 
the  quick  putting  on  of  the  helmet,  e.  g.,  nothing  should  be  slung 
across  the  chest. 

General  Points  on  Training  With  Anti-Gas  Appliances: 

1 68.  When  training  men  in  the  use  of  anti-gas  appliances  the 
following  points  are  of  importance.  They  apply  equally  to  box 
respirators  and  P.H.  helmets: 

(a)  Practice  in  simple  movements  in  box  respirators  or 
helmets.  Ordinarily  infantry  drill  should  be  combined 
with  physical  drill,  including  arm  and  leg  exercises, 
leap-frog  and  doubling.  The  time  of  practice  should 
not  exceed  15  minutes  at  first,  and  should  be  gradually 
extended  in  the  case  of  the  P.H.  helmet. 

(6)  Practice  in  bombing,  rapid  loading  and  aiming,  judging 
distance  and  range  practice,  should  be  carried  out  while 
men  are  wearing  box  respirators  or  helmets. 

( c )  Men  must  swallow  their  saliva  and  not  allow  it  to  drain 

out  over  their  lips  or  through  the  valve. 

(d)  Officers  and  N.  C.  Os.  will  receive  the  same  training  as  the 

men  and  in  addition  will  be  practiced  in  giving  orders 
whilst  wearing  their  respirators  or  helmets. 

169.  Practice  and  drill  in  the  use  of  anti-gas  appliances  should 
be  carried  out  continuously.  This  applies  especially  to  troops 
which  have  returned  to  trench  warfare  after  having  been  in  dis¬ 
tricts  where  more  open  fighting  may  have  led  (a)  to  a  temporary 
lapse  in  this  training,  (6)  to  the  subsequent  incorporation  of 
drafts  only  partially  trained  in  anti-gas  measures. 


CHAPTER  V. 

INSPECTION  OF  PERSONAL  ANTI-GAS  EQUIPMENT. 

A. — Box  Respirators: 

170.  Box  respirators  must  normally  be  inspected  once  a  week 
and  daily  during  “Gas  Alert.”  Attention  will  be  paid  to  the 
following  point:  — 

(a)  Boxes,  facepiece,  mouthpiece,  noseclip,  eyepieces  and  elastic 

must  be  in  good  order.  If  the  box  is  rusted  through  the 
respirator  must  be  condemned. 

(b)  Facepiece  must  be  firmly  attached  to  the  mouthpiece  and 

to  the  elbow  tube. 

(0)  The  metal  tube  inside  the  mouthpiece  must  be  about  £-in. 
back  from  the  opening  of  the  latter. 

(d)  The  rubber  tube  must  be  intact  and  firmly  attached  to 

the  box  and  elbow  tube. 

(e)  The  expiratory  valve  should  be  tested  by  removing  the 

box  from  the  satchel  and  either  closing  the  cap  at  the 
bottom  with  the  hand,  or  pinching  the  rubber  tube  so  as 
to  prevent  inlet  of  air  at  the  same  time  attempting 
to  draw  in  air  through  the  mouthpiece.  It  should  not 
be  possible  to  draw  in  any  air.  This  also  proves  the 
absence  of  leaks  in  the  tube  or  box.  It  must  be  pos¬ 
sible  to  breathe  out  easily  through  the  valve.  If  the 
latter  has  stuck  because  of  saliva  drying  in  it,  this 
must  be  remedied  by  rubbing  the  valve  between  the 
fingers. 

{f)  See  that  the  inlet  valve  is  opening  properly  and  that  air 
can  be  drawn  freely  through  the  box. 

( g )  See  that  the  whipcord  is  present  and  not  knotted. 

(h)  Any  small  perforations  in  the  facepiece  should  be  tem¬ 

porarily  repaired  by  applying  pieces  of  adhesive  plaster 
from  the  repair  outfit  to  the  perforation,  both  inside 
and  outside  the  mask.  The  adhesive  plaster  should  be 
large  enough  to  overlap  the  hole  all  round. 

Respirators  so  repaired  must  be  exchanged  as  soon  as 
possible. 

(i)  Replace  the  box  in  the  satchel  so  that  the  facepiece  conies 

to  the  face  without  twist  on  the  tube.  Fold  facepiece 
carefully  and  replace  in  the  satchel  so  that  the  expira¬ 
tory  valve  is  not  likely  to  crumple. 

4 


98  INSPECTION  OF  PERSONAL  ANTI-GAS  EQUIPMENT, 

B. — P.  H.  Helmets: 

171.  Helmets  must  be  inspected  once  a  week,  or  daily  during 
“Gas  Alert,”  Attention  must  be  paid  to  the  following  points:  — 
{a)  See  that  the  satchel  and  wallet  are  in  good  order. 

(&)  Folding.  See  that  the  helmet  is  properly  folded  with  the 
valve  flat,  and  no  strain  on  the  flannelette  round  the 
valve  seating. 

The  folding  should  be  done  as  follows:  — 

Hold  the  helmet  under  the  chin  with  the  eyepieces  away  from 
the  body. 

Arrange  the  valve  so  that  it  lies  flat  pointing  to  the  right 
(Fig.  2). 


Fold  the  right  hand  edge  of  the  helmet  forward  along  AB, 
arranging  the  valve  to  lie  flat  on  top  of  the  fold.  Then  fold  the 
left-hand  edge  forward  along  CD  (Fig  3). 

Fold  over  top  along  line  1.1,  then  along  line  2.2,  and  finally 
along  3.3. 

The  skirt  should  be  now  folded  over  and  the  folded  helmet 
should  appear  as  in  Fig.  4.  This  should  now  be  placed  in  the 
wallet  with  the  skirt  next  to  the  flap  side  of  the  wallet. 

(c)  Valves.  The  two  parts  of  the  valve  screw  together.  The 
joint  should  be  tight  and  should  grip  the  flannelette. 
The  mouthpiece  should  be  horizontal.  See  that  the 
rubber  valve  is  fastened  securely  to  the  metal.  Each 


INSPECTION  OF  PERSONAL  ANTI-GAS  EQUIPMENT.  99 

man  must  test  the  valve  of  his  helmet  by  breathing 
through  it.  He  should  not  be  able  to  breath  in  easily 
through  the  valve.  The  valve  rubber  sometimes  becomes 
hard.  This  can  be  remedied  by  breathing  out  through 
the  valve  for  about  a  minute  at  each  helmet  inspection. 

{d)  Eyepieces.  These  should  be  screwed  up  tightly  from  the 
inside  and  should  grip  the  flannelette.  Screw  threads 
must  not  be  crossed.  The  glasses  must  not  be  cracked 
or  loose. 

(e)  There  must  not  be  the  smallest  hole  through  which  gas 
might  enter.  Particular  attention  must  be  paid  to  the 
flannelette  round  the  eyepieces  and  valve  seating. 

(/)  If  helmets  become  so  sodden  with  water  that  it  is  impos¬ 
sible  to  breathe  through  them,  they  must  then  be  con- 

C. — Anti-Gas  Goggles: 

172.  Goggles  must  be  inspected  weekly  and  the  following 
points  specially  noted:  — 

(а)  The  windows  should  be  unbroken. 

(б)  Elastic  or  tapes  must  be  in  good  condition. 

Treatment  With  Anti-Dimming  Composition: 

After  each  inspection  the  windows  should  be  treated  afresh 
with  Anti-dimming  Composition.  This  should  be  done  as  follows: 
Apply  a  little  of  the  paste  with  a  dry  rag  to  the  inside  of  the 
eyepiece,  rubbing  it  hard  into  the  glass  or  film.  Then  polish  off 
as  much  as  possible  with  a  dry  rag,  leaving  the  glass  quite  clear. 
This  process  must  be  repeated  after  each  time  that  goggles  have 
been  worn. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  THE  USE  OF  ANTI-GAS  HORSE 

RESPIRATOR. 

1.  — Description: 

173.  The  respirator  consists  of  a  flannelette  bag  with  a  can¬ 
vas  mouthpiece  which  goes  into  the  horse’s  mouth  and  saves  the 
flannelette  from  being  bitten  through.  The  bag  is  provided  with 
an  elastic  band  which  passes  round  the  opening  so  as  to  draw 
the  respirator  close  to  the  face  when  in  use.  The  upper  side  of 
the  mouth  of  the  flannelette  bag  is  furnished  with  a  small  un¬ 
bleached  calico  patch  by  which  the  respirator  is  attached  to  the 
noseband  of  the  head  collar  when  in  the  “alert”  position,  and 
while  in  use.  Inside  the  bag  and  attached  to  the  canvas  mouth¬ 
piece  there  is  a  canvas  frame  which  is  sititched  on  to  the  bag 
in  such  a  way  as  to  prevent  the  material  drawing  into  the  nostrils 
when  the  respirator  is  in  use.  The  whole  is  folded  and  carried 
in  a  canvas  case  provided  with  a  flap,  secured  by  three  press 
buttons,  and  having  two  straps  at  the  back  by  which  the  case 
is  attached  to  the  head  collar. 

2.  — Method  of  Use: 

174.  Horses  can  stand  a  higher  concentration  of  gas  than 
human  beings  without  material  damage,  and  it  is  not  therefore 
necessary  to  protect  them  against  cloud  gas  attacks  when  they 
are  a  considerable  distance  back  from  the  trenches.  Nor  is  it  neces¬ 
sary  to  protect  their  eyes.  The  respirator  is  primarily  intended 
for  use  on  transport  animals  when  they  are  sent  to  the  vicinity 
of  the  trenches  with  supplies,  ammunition,  etc.  In  the  case  of 
gas  shell  attacks,  horses  should  be  protected  wherever  the  shelling 
is  heavy. 

(1) — Carrying  When  Not  Immediately  Required: 

175.  When  not  required  for  immediate  use  the  respirator  can 
be  conveniently  carried  on  the  supporting  strap  of  the  breast 
harness  as  shown  in  Fig.  5,  or  if  a  zinc  wither  pad  is  worn,  still 
more  conveniently  inside  this  pad.  However  carried,  the  case 
is  steadied  by  being  strapped  on  either  side  to  the  metal  ring 
on  the  supporting  strap,  and  its  flap  should  be  passed  under  this 


102 


USE  OF  ANTI-GAS  HORSE  RESPIRATOR. 


strap,  between  it  and  the  numnah  wither  pad,  and  buttoned  as 
in  the  “alert”  position. 

(2)  Alert  Position: 

176.  When  horses  are  being  sent  up  to  the  trenches,  the  trans¬ 
port  or  other  officer  responsible  should  have  the  respirators  ad¬ 
justed  in  the  “alert”  position  before  moving  off,  as  follows: 

( a )  The  flap  of  the  respirator  ease  is  unbuttoned  and  slipped 
under  the  nose-band  of  the  head  collar  from  below 
upwards. 


Fig.  5. 

(6)  The  two  straps  at  the  back  are  also  passed  under  the  nose¬ 
band  and  secured  to  the  check  pieces  of  the  head  collar, 
above  the  metal  D  on  each  side. 


USE  OF  ANTI-GAS  HORSE  RESPIRATOR. 


103 


(c)  The  small  unbleached  calico  paten  on  the  uppei  side  of 

the  mouth  of  the  respirator  is  buttoned  on  to  the  nose¬ 
band  of  the  head  collar  so  that  the  respirator  is  ready 
to  be  slipped  on  immediately  in  the  event  of  a  gas  attack. 

( d )  The  cover  of  the  case  is  then  closed  over  the  noseband, 

and  the  respirator  is  thus  prote<flQd  from  rain,  etc.,  and 


held  in  position  on  the  noseband.  Fig.  6  shows  a  respir¬ 
ator  in  its  case  carried  in  the  <calert”  position. 

(3)  Wearing  in  Gas: 

177.  The  respirator  being  carried  in  the  “alert”  position  is 
adjusted  for  use  as  follows:  — 

(a)  The  flap  of  the  case  is  unbuttoned  and  the  respirator  re¬ 
moved.  leaving  the  case  attached  to  the  cheek  pieces  of 
the  head  collar  and  lying  flat  on  the  face. 


104 


USE  OF  ANTI-GAS  HORSE  RESPIRATOR. 


(6)  The  mouth  of  the  bag  is  drawn  down  over  the  upper  lip 
and  upper  teeth  with  one  hand  on  each  side  of  the 
mouthpiece,  slipped  into  the  mouth,  and  drawn  well 
up  to  the  angle  of  the  lips. 


Fig.  7. 


(c)  The  elastic  band  is  seized  on  either  side  close  to  the 
mouthpiece  and  pulled  outward  so  as  to  draw  the  mouth 
of  the  bag  tight  around  the  upper  jaw,  above  the  nos¬ 
trils,  and  is  then  slipped  over  the  poll. 

The  respirator  is  then  in  position  and  the  animal  may  be 
worked  in  it  without  difficulty  or  undue  distress.  The  bit  and 
reins  are  not  interfered  with  in  any  way.  This  is  shown  in 
Fig.  7. 


USE  OF  ANTI-GAS  HORSE  RESPIRATOR. 


105 


GAS  MASK  FOR  WAR  D(50 


106 


USE  OF  ANTI-GAS  HORSE  RESPIRATOR. 


(4)  Replacement  in  Case: 

178.  In  folding  the  respirator  and  replacing  it  in  the  case  ready 
for  use  the  following  points  should  be  observed:  — 

( а )  The  canvas  mouthpiece  should  be  wiped  as  clean  as  pos¬ 

sible. 

(б)  The  flannelette  bag  should  be  held  with  the  canvas 

mouthpiece  underneath  and  the  elastic  band  placed  over 
the  top  of  the  bag  in  such  a  way  that  when  the  canvas 
patch  is  buttoned  on  to  the  noseband  the  elastic  band 
lias  simply  to  be  passed  straight  up  over  the  face  and 
over  the  poll.  The  bottom  end  of  the  respirator  should 
then  be  tucked  in  and  rolled  up  over  the  elastic  band 
to  make  a  neat  roll  for  insertion  in  the  canvas  case. 

179.  The  dogs  employed  by  the  French  in  aiding  the  wounded 
and  carrying  messages  through  the  trenches  are  wonderfully 
trained  and  show  extraordinary  intelligence. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


TYPICAL  STANDING  ORDERS  FOR  ACTION  DURING  GAS 
ALERT  AND  HOSTILE  GAS  ATTACKS. 

Xote. — These  are  Specimen  Orders  for  guidance  of  Commanders 
in  Drawing  up  their  own  Orders,  i  . 

i.— ORDERING  OF  GAS  ALERT. 

180.  Gas  alert  will  be  ordered  when  the  wind  is  in  the  danger¬ 
ous  quarter,  no  matter  what  the  strength  of  the  wind. 

The  order  “Gas  Alert”  will  be  sent  out  to  all  units  by  Corps 
H.  Q.  (or,  if  authority  has  been  so  delegated,  by  Divisional  H.  Q.), 
but  Brigade  H.  Q.  or  Battalion  Commanders  are  empowered  to 
order  a  “Gas  Alert”  as  a  result  of  wind  observations  made  by 
Company  Gas  N.  C.  Os.  forwarded  by  Company  Commanders. 
Such  action  will  be  reported  immediately  to  the  next  higher 
formation. 

“Gas  Alert”  will  not  be  taken  off  without  the  authority  of  the 
Corps  Commander,  or  the  Divisional  Commander  to  whom  author¬ 
ity  has  been  delegated. 

2.— BEHAVIOR  DURING  GAS  ALERT. 

Inspection  of  Box  Respirators  and  Helmets: 

181.  (i)  All  box  respirators  and  helmets  will  be  carefully  in¬ 
spected  and  the  inspection  repeated  daily. 

Alert  Position  for  Box  Respirators: 

(ii)  All  ranks  within  one  mile  of  the  front  line  will  carry  their 
box  respirators  in  the  alert  position.  Nothing  slung  across  the 
chest  must  interfere  with  the  immediate  use  of  the  respirator. 

Special  Orders  for  Men  Using  P.  H  Helmets: 

(iii)  The  helmet  will  be  carried  in  the  alert  position,  i.  e., 
pinned  through  the  wallet  on  to  the  shirt  and  rolled  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  protect  the  valve  and  leave  the  helmet  suspended 
ready  to  put  on  the  moment  the  jacket  is  opened. 

(iv)  The  two  upper  buttons  of  both  jacket  and  greatcoat  will 
be  left  undone.  Men  are  forbidden  to  wear  mackintosh  sheets 
round  their  shoulders  or  mufflers  round  their  necks. 


108  ORDERS  FOR  ACTION  DURING  GAS  ATTACKS. 


(v)  In  no  circumstances  will  anything  (rifle,  field  glasses,  etc.) 
be  slung  across  the  chest  in  such  a  manner  as  to  interfere  with 
the  rapid  adjustment  of  the  helmet. 

(vi)  Jackets  will  not  be  taken  off  within  one  mile  of  the  front 
line. 

(vii)  Officers  and  N.  C.  Os.  in  charge  of  any  unit  or  party  must 
see  that  the  orders  (i)  to  (vi)  are  strictly  carried  out  both  for 
troops  in  front  line  trenches  and  for  detached  bodies  of  troops 
(working  and  carrying  parties,  etc.). 

Sentries,  Etc.: 

(viii)  All  working  parties  will  have  a  sentry  posted  to  give 
instant  warning  of  a  gas  attack. 

(ix)  A  sentry  will  be  posted  at  each  Strombos  Horn  or  other 
alarm  device  and  instructed  in  its  use. 

(x)  A  sentry  will  be  posted  to  every  large  dug-out  and  to  each 
group  of  small  dug-outs. 

(xi)  A  sentry  will  be  posted  to  each  Headquarters,  Signal 
office  and  independent  body  of  men. 

(xii)  Arrangements  will  be  made  by  the  officer  in  charge  of 
the  trench  for  warning  the  Artillery  Observation  Post  if  there 
is  one  in  the  trench. 

(xiii)  Commanders  of  units  in  billets  within  eight  miles  of 
the  front  line  trenches  will  organize  a  system  of  giving  the  alarm 
and  rousing  all  men  in  cellars  or  houses. 

(xiv)  At  night  sentries  must  have  at  least  two  men  within 
reach  of  them  so  that  the  alarm  can  be  spread  rapidly. 

Sleeping: 

(xv)  When  a  gas  attack  is  probable,  men  in  front  line  trenches 
will  sleep  on  the  fire-step  instead  of  in  dug-outs. 

(xvi)  Men  sleeping  in  rearward  lines  or  in  works  where  they 
are  allowed  to  take  off  their  equipment,  will  sleep  with  their  box 
respirators  on  the  person. 

Company  Gas  N.  C.  Os.: 

(xvii)  Company  Gas  N.  C.  Os.  will  report  to  Company  H.  Q.  in 
readiness  to  assist  the  Company  Commander  should  a  gas  attack 
occur. 


ORDERS  FOR  ACTION  DURING  GAS  ATTACKS.  109 


Ammonia  Capsules: 

(xviii)  Medical  officers  i/c  units  must  see  that  a  proper  pro¬ 
portion  of  the  ammonia  capsules  are  with  stretcher  bearers  in 
the  front  line  in  readiness  for  their  immediate  use  after  a  gas 
attack. 

3.— GAS  ALARM. 

182.  (i)  In  the  event  of  an  enemy  gas  attack  the  alarm  will 
at  once  be  given  by  all  means  available — by  telephone  Strombos 
Horn,  gongs  and,  if  necessary,  by  orderly.  Sentries  will  warn 
all  ranks  in  trenches,  dug-outs,  observation  posts  or  mine  shafts. 

(ii)  All  ranks  will  at  once  put  on  their  box  respirators  or 
helmets. 

(iii)  Troops  in  the  front  line  trenches  and  elsewhere  where  the 
tactical  situation  requires  it,  will  stand  to  arms.  All  ranks  in 
the  front  lines  are  forbidden  to  remain  in,  or  go  info  dug-outs  or 
move  to  a  flank  or  to  the  rear. 

(iv)  If  troops  in  support  or  reserve  lines  of  trenches  remain  in, 
or  go  into,  unprotected  dug-outs,  they  must  continue  to  wear  their 
anti -gas  appliances. 

Unnecessary  Movement  to  Cease: 

(v)  There  must  be  as  little  movement  and  talking  as  possible. 

(vi)  On  the  alarm  being  given,  all  bodies  of  troops  or  transport 
on  the  move  will  halt  and  all  working  parties  cease  work  until 
the  gas  cloud  has  passed. 

(vii)  If  a  relief  is  going  on,  units  should  stand  steady  as  far 
as  possible  until  the  gas  cloud  has  passed. 

(viii)  Supports  and  parties  bringing  up  ammunition  and 
grenades  will  only  be  moved  up  if  the  tactical  situation  demands. 

Protected  Shelters: 

(ix)  The  blanket  doorways  of  protected  dug-outs,  cellars,  etc., 
will  be  let  down  and  carefully  fixed  in  position. 

4.— ACTION  DURING  AN  ENEMY  GAS  ATTACK. 

183.  (i)  Should  the  gas  cloud  be  unaccompanied  by  an  infantry 
attack,  the  signal  for  gas  will  be  sent  and  the  S.  0.  S  signal  will 
not  be  made  unless  an  infantry  attack  develops. 


110  ORDERS  FOR  ACTION  DURING  GAS  ATTACKS. 
Tactical  Measures: 

The  troops  in  the  front  trenches  will  open  a  slow  rate  of  rifle 
lire  against  the  enemy  trenches:  occasional  short  bursts  should  be 
lired  from  machine  guns  to  ascertain  that  these  are  in  working 
order.  All  available  howitzers  should  be  turned  on  the  enemy’s 
trenches  from  which  the  gas  is  being  emitted,  or  in  which  the 
enemy  infantry  may  be  concentrating  for  the  assault. 

(ii)  Should  an  infantry  attack  develop,  the  normal  procedure 
of  S.  O.  S.  will  be  carried  out. 

(iii)  Troops  in  the  front  line  must  be  prepared  to  bring  a  cross 
fire  to  bear  on  the  enemy  attempting  to  advance  against  a  gassed 
portion  of  the  line. 

Movement: 

(iv)  All  movement  must  be  reduced  to  a  minimum.  There 
should  be  as  little  moving  about  and  talking  as  possible  in  the 

trenches.  Men  must  be  made  to  realize  that,  with  the  gas  now 
used  by  the  enemy,  the  observance  of  this  rule  may  be  essential 
for  their  safety. 

5.—  ACTION  AFTER  AN  ENEMY  GAS  ATTACK. 
Removal  of  Respirators,  etc.: 

184.  (i)  Men  in  charge  of  anti-gas  fans  will  use  them  as  soon 
as  the  gas  cloud  has  passed,  so  as  to  admit  of  respirators  being 
removed. 

(ii)  Box  respirators  and  helmets  will  not  be  removed  after  a 
gas  attack  until  permission  has  been  given  by  the  Company  Com¬ 
mander  who  will,  when  possible,  ascertain  from  officers  and 
N.C.Os.  who  have  been  trained  at  a  Gas  School  that  it  is  safe 
to  do  so. 

Preparation  for  a  Subsequent  Attack: 

(iii)  So  as  to  be  ready  for  a  subsequent  gas  cloud,  all  ranks 
will  replace  their  box  respirators  or  helmets  in  the  “  Alert  ” 
position. 

A  sharp  lookout  must  be  maintained  for  a  repetition  of  the  gas 
attack  as  long  as  the  wind  continues  in  the  dangerous  quarter. 

Clearing  of  Shelters: 

(iv)  Dug-outs,  cellars,  etc.,  must  not  be  entered  before  they  have 
been  thoroughly  ventilated,  except  by  men  wearing  box  respirators 


ORDERS  FOR  ACTION  DURING  GAS  ATTACKS.  1 1 1 


<or  helmets.  Thorough  ventilation,  by  means  of  fires  or  anti-gas 
fans,  is  the  only  sure  way  of  clearing  a  shelter. 

Movement: 

(v)  No  man  suffering  from  the  effects  of  gas  is  to  be  allowed 
to  walk  to  the  dressing  station. 

(vi)  The  clearing  of  trenches  and  dug-outs  must  not  be  carried 
out  by  men  who  have  been  affected  by  the  gas. 

(vii)  After  a  gas  attack,  troops  in  the  front  trenches  are  to  be 
relieved  of  all  fatigue  and  carrying  work  for  24  hours  by  sending 
up  working  parties  from  companies  in  rear. 

(viii)  Horses  which  have  been  exposed  to  the  gas  should  not 
be  worked  for  24  hours  if  it  can  be  avoided. 

Cleaning  of  Arms: 

(ix)  Rifles  and  machine  guns  must  be  cleaned  after  a  gas 
attack.  Oil  cleaning  will  prevent  corrosion  for  12  hours,  but  the 
first  opportunity  must  be  taken  to  clean  all  parts  in  boiling  water 
containing  a  little  soda. 

6.— ACTION  DURING  A  GAS  SHELL  BOMBARDMENT. 

185.  (i)  Box  respirators  or  helmets  will  be  worn  in  the  area 
shelled. 

(ii)  Arrangements  must  be  made  for  giving  a  local  alarm  in 
the  event  of  a  sudden  and  intense  bombardment  with  gas  shells. 

(iii)  All  dugouts  and  shelters  in  the  vicinity  will  be  visited  and 
any  sleeping  men  roused. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

TYPICAL  STANDING  ORDERS  FOR  COMPANY  GAS  N.C.Os. 

186.  (i)  They  will  assist  officers  at  the  inspection  of  box 
respirators,  helmets  and  goggles  and  in  making  such  local  repairs 
as  are  possible.  They  will  assist  in  training  men  in  the  use  of 
anti-gas  appliances. 

(ii)  Under  the  Company  Commander  they  will  have  charge  of 
all  anti-gas  trench  stores  as  follows: 

(a)  Strombos  Horns  and  Other  Gas  Alarm  Devices.— Inspect 

daily  and  see  that  sentries  posted  to  them  know  how 
they  should  be  used. 

(b)  Gas-proof  Shelters. —  See  that  the  blanket  doorways  fit 

and  are  kept  in  good  order. 

(c)  Anti-gas  Fans. — •  See  that  they  are  in  their  proper  position 

and  in  serviceable  condition. 

(d)  Stores  of  fuel  for  clearing  shelters. —  Insure  sufficient 

supply  for  clearing  all  dug-outs,  to  be  maintained  under 
company  arrangements. 

(e)  Vermorel  Sprayers. —  Maintain  in  working  order  and  see 

that  supply  of  solution  is  available. 

(/)  Gas  Sampling  Apparatus.— Have  charge  of  the  vacuum 
bulbs  and  gas-testing  tubes.  Keep  a  stock  of  corked 
bottles  and  small  tins  with  well-fitting  lids  for  col¬ 
lecting  samples  of  earth  and  water  after  a  gas  shell 
attack. 

(iii)  On  relief  they  will  assist  the  Company  Commander  in 
taking  over  all  anti-gas  trench  stores.  The  Company  Gas  N.  C.  Os. 
should  accompany  the  advance  party  and  take  over  anti-gas 
trench  stores  (by  daylight  if  possible). 

(iv)  They  will  make  wind  observations  every  three  hours,  or 
more  frequently  if  the  wind  is  in  or  nearing  a  dangerous  quarter 
and  will  report  any  change  of  wind  to  the  Company  Commander. 

(v)  During  a  gas  cloud  attack  they  will  take  gas  samples  by- 
means  of  the  vacuum  bulbs  and  gas-testing  tubes. 

(vi)  During  or  after  the  attack  the  IST.C.O.  must  note  down  in 
writing  as  much  information  regarding  the  attack  as  possible. 


114 


ORDERS  FOR  GAS  COMPANY  N.C.Os. 


(vii)  As  soon  as  possible  after  the  conclusion  of  a  gas  shell 
bombardment,  the  gas  iST.C.0.  must  fill  his  bottles  and  tins  (ii) 
(/)  and  take  samples  of  water,  mud,  or  earth  from  those  parts  of 
the  line  which  are  smelling  most  strongly  of  shell  gases.  He 
should  note  the  position  of  any  blind  shells. 

(viii)  As  soon  as  possible  after  a  gas  attack,  all  samples  and 
notes  will  be  handed  in  to  the  Company  Commander  for  trans¬ 
mission  to  the  Divisional  Gas  Officer. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  MAKING  WIND  OBSERVATIONS  AND 

FURNISHING  REPORTS. 

Wind  reports  are  to  be  made  and  handed  to  the  Company  Com¬ 
mander  every  three  hours,  or  oftener  if  the  wind  is  in  or 
approaching  a  dangerous  quarter.  In  order  to  make  these  reports 
the  following  points  must  be  attended  to: 

/VOffTtf 


i.— WIND  VANE. 

187.  A  simple  wind  vane  must  be  set  up.  The  vane  must  "have 
as  little  friction  as  possible,  so  that  a  wind  of  under  2  miles  per 
hour  will  turn  it.  A  little  post  at  the  top  of  the  vane  should 
carry  a  strip  of  linen  5  in.  by  f  in.,  by  the  movements  of  which 
the  strength  of  the  wind  can  be  judged. 

The  vane  must  be  set  up  sufficiently  high  to  get  a  true  obser¬ 
vation  (e.  g.,  18  in.  above  the  top  of  the  dug-out,  etc.).  Correct 
orinentation  should  be  obtained  by  getting  1ST  by  the  N  star  and  S 
by  the  sun  at  midday  (Greenwich  time). 


116  WIND  OBSERVATIONS  AND  REPORTS. 

2. —  DIRECTION  OF  WIND. 

1 88.  Before  reading  the  direction  of  the  wind  from  the  vane  the 
observer  should  gauge  the  approximate  direction  by  noting  the 
course  taken  by  smoke,  etc.  Direction  of  wind  must  be  stated  in 
points  of  the  compass.  The  points  of  the  compass  to  be  used  are 
shown  in  Fig.  8. 

3. — STRENGTH  OF  WIND. 

This  may  be  judged  from  Beaufort’s  scale. 


Beaufort’s 

No. 

Speed  in 
m.p.h. 

Observations  of 
Natural  objects 

Behavior  of  flag  at 
Top  of  Vane. 

0 

0 

Smoke  straight  up. 

No  movement. 

1 

2 

Smoke  slants. 

No  movement. 

9 

5 

Felt  on  face. 

Slight. 

3 

10 

Paper,  etc.,  moved. 

f  up. 

4 

15 

Bushes  sway. 

Up  and  falling  often. 
Up.  Falling  less  often. 

5 

20 

Tree  tops  sway. 
"Wavelets  on  water. 

6 

30 

Trees  sway  and 
whistle. 

Up  and  flapping. 

4.—  TYPE  OF  REPORT. 

189.  The  points  North.  South,  East  and  West  must  be  written 
in  full.  Other  points  are  denoted  by  the  usual  letters. 

The  following  example  shows  the  type  of  report  which  should 
be  made. 


Trench  No.  131. 

Wind  Report. 

Date  16-10-16. 

Time. 

Direction. 

Speed. 

6  p.m . 

N.N.W . 

12  m.p.h. 

WIND  OBSERVATIONS  AND  REPORTS. 


117 


5.— WARNING  AVAILABLE. 

190.  The  following  simple  calculation  determines  the  number  of 
seconds  which  it  will  take  for  a  gas  cloud  to  move  from  the 
enemy’s  lines  to  our  own: 

Double  trench  distance  (in  yards)  and  divide  by  speed  of  wind 
( in  m.p.h. ) .  Example  =  100  x  2  =  20  seconds. 

~io 


CHAPTER  X. 


INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  TAKING  GAS  SAMPLES  AND  FOR 
REPORTING  ON  HOSTILE  GAS  ATTACKS. 

i. —  Taking  Gas  Samples  During  A  Cloud  Gas  Attack. 

A.  —  Vacuum  Bulbs: 

191.  (a)  Open  the  hinged  lid  at  the  end  of  the  box  containing 
the  bulb. 

( b )  Remove  the  file  from  the  plasticine  stopping  and  with 

it  make  a  scratch  on  the  glass  tube  at  the  narrow¬ 
est  point. 

( c )  Hold  the  tube  with  finger  and  thumb  of  each  hand  and 

snap  it  where  it  is  scratched;  air  will  immediately 
rush  in  and  fill  the  bulb 

(d)  The  box  should  be  held  as  high  as  possible  in  the 

trench  when  the  sample  is  taken. 

(e)  Press  home  the  cap  containing  plasticine  over  the 

broken  end  of  the  tube  so  as  to  seal  up  the  contents 
of  the  bulb. 

Samples  of  gas  should  be  taken  both  in  the  fire  and  support 
trenches.  The  first  sample  should  be  taken  about  two  minutes 
after  the  commencement  of  the  attack  and  other  samples  at  in¬ 
tervals  during  the  attack. 

The  exact  time  and  place  should  be  noted  on  the  form  on  the 
back  of  the  box  immediately  after  the  sample  is  taken. 

I.f,  when  the  gas  waves  have  passed,  any  bulbs  remain  unused, 
samples  of  air  in  unprotected  dug-outs  should  be  taken  before  the 
latter  are  cleared. 

Immediately  after  vacuum  bulbs  have  been  used  they  should  be 
taken  under  shelter. 

B.  —  Gas-Testing  Tubes: 

In  the  intervals  of  taking  gas  samples  with  vacuum  bulbs  a 
Gas  Testing  Tube  should  be  used.  Open  the  box  by  stripping  off 
the  adhesive  plaster  and  pulling  off  the  lid;  pull  out  the  small 
glass  stopper  and  pump  air  through  the  apparatus  by  squeezing 
the  rubber  ball  in  the  hand  for  10  minutes.  If  the  number  of 
times  the  ball  is  squeezed  is  counted  and  recorded,  useful  infor¬ 
mation  may  be  obtained.  After  the  sample  has  been  taken,  re¬ 
place  the  small  glass  stopper,  and  at  once  replace  the  lid  of  the 


120  GAS  SAMPLES  AND  HOSTILE  GAS  ATTACKS. 


box,  taking  care  to  avoid  compressing  the  rubber  ball.  Note  on 
the  label  the  time  and  place  at  which  the  sample  was  taken. 

2- — Collection  of  Specimens  After  a  Gas  Shell  Bombardment; 

192.  As  soon  as  possible  after  the  conclusion  of  a  gas  shell 
bombardment,  the  Gas  N.C.O.  must  take  samples  of  water  or 
earth  from  those  parts  of  the  line  which  are  smelling  most 
strongly  of  shell  gases.  He  should  note  the  spots  at  which  the 
samples  were  taken. 

During  and  after  a  gas  attack  the  Gas  N.C.O.  should  note  down 
in  writing  as  much  information  as  possible  on  the  following 
points : 

(а)  Strength  and  direction  of  wind  and  general  weather 

conditions. 

(б)  Times  at  which  the  gas  wave  or  gas  shell  bombardment 

started  and  finished. 

(c)  Exact  position  and  nature  of  place  affected  by  gas  01 

gas  shells. 

( d )  Color  and  color  changes  of  the  gas  cloud. 

(e)  Sound  of  escaping  gas. 

(/)  Smell  of  gas  and  gas  shells. 

( g )  Effect  of  gas  and  gas  shells  on  men. 

(h)  To  what  extent  telephone  dugouts,  covered  gun  and  ma- 

x  chine  gun  emplacements,  etc.,  were  affected. 

(i)  The  approximate  number  of  gas  shells  used  and  their 

calibre. 

(j)  The  position  of  blind  shells  and  fragments  of  shells,  etc, 

3. —  Forwarding  of  Samples,  Specimens  and  Reports: 

193.  After  an  attack,  cloud  gas  samples,  gas  testing  tubes,  gas 
shell  bases  and  fragments,  shell  gas  samples  and  notes  on  the 
attack  will  be  handed  to  the  Company  Commander  as  soon  as 
possible  for  transmission  to  the  Divisional  Gas  Officer. 

Gas  Precautions: 

194.  Do  you  and  your  men  thoroughly  understand  the  order  re¬ 
garding  “  gas  precautions  ”  ?  Have  you  got  your  proper  number 
of  gas  masks,  box  respirators,  etc.?  Have  you  got  Vermorel 
sprayers  and  solution  properly  stored  for  them?  Are  the  gas 
blankets  in  position  at  entrances  of  your  dug-outs  ?  Do  you  carry 
out  “  gas  drill,”  and  do  you  thoroughly  comply  with  the  orders 
for  “  Gas  alert  ”  period  ? 


Copyright  Underwood  &  Underwood,  N.  Y. 


THE  PHOTO  SHOWS  A  LIQUID  FIRE  OR  FLAME-THROWING 

ATTACK  IN  PROGRESS. 


Copyright  Underwood  &  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

“  RAIN  OF  FIRE  ”  WAR’S  LATEST  DEADLY  WEAPON. 

French  soldiers  in  a  trench  of  the  very  front  lines  shooting  the 
flames  into  the  German  trenches.  The  German  trench  is  only  several 
hundred  yards  away  and  the  flames  cause  great  injuries  and  damage. 
This  remarkable  photo  shows  the  men  actually  using  the  instruments 
for  throwing  the  flames.  The  “  Flame-thrower  ”  was  first  introduced 
by  the  Germans.  The  Allies  perfected  the  Aveapon  and  now  the 
Germans  have  to  face  their  OAvn  kind  of  warfare,  much  to  their  dis¬ 
comfiture.  The  “  flame-thrower  ”  looks  somewhat  like  a  fire  extin¬ 
guisher  and  is  carried  over  the  back,  while  the  flames  shoot  from  an 
extension  that  is  held  in  the  hands. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

GAS  IN  THE  OFFENSE. 

PART  i.— LIQUID  FIRE. 

195.  The  latest  and  most  diabolical  warfare  to  be  introduced 
was  originated  by  the  Germans.  It  is  called  the  “  Flammen- 
werfer  ”  or  “  Flame  Thrower  ”  and  instead  of  spreading  gas  it 
actually  throws  flames. 

It  is  now  a  favorite  German  institution,  but  occasionally  it 
gets  into  trouble  by  being  exploded  by  shell  fire  in  the  hands  of 
the  man  using  it. 

The  “  Flammenwerfer  ”  looks  somewhat  like  a  fire  extinguisher 
and  is  hung  on  the  back  of  the  soldier  while  an  extension  that  is 
held  in  the  hands  throws  the  flames.  The  cylinder  contains  oil 
and  compressed  gas.  As  the  oil  is  forced  out  of  the  cylinder  by 
the  compressed  gas  it  catches  fire  and  spreads  out  in  a  sheet  of 
flame  and  smoke.  A  single  flammenwerfer  can  cover  a  frontage  of 
about  6  yards  when  stationary  and  the  flame  burns  for  about  one 
minute.  The  extreme  range  at  present  is  only  about  50-60  yards, 
but  this  is  being  increased  to  200  —  300  yards.  The  kind  of  oil 
used  depends  upon  the  atmosphere. 

The  discharge  is  accompanied  by  a  loud  roar,  yellowish  red 
flames  and  a  dense  black  smoke  making  it  very  difficult  for  green 
troops  to  realize  that  it  is  effective  for  only  the  short  distance 
above  mentioned. 

While  the  heat  of  the  flames  is  intense  the  burning  takes  place 
entirely  in  the  air  and  the  stream  cannot  be  turned  downward 
as  the  heat  causes  an  upward  current. 

Protection  is  easily  obtained  by  any  non-inflammable  cover 
above  and  a  soldier  is  safe  if  kneeling  on  a  fire  step  or  just  within 
the  entrance  of  a  dug-out. 

196.  Rain  of  fire. —  War’s  latest  deadly  weapon  —  French  sol¬ 
diers  in  a  trench  of  the  very  front  lines  shooting  the  flames  into 
the  German  trenches.  The  Hun  trench  is  only  several  hundred 
yards  away  and  the  flames  cause  great  injuries  and  damage.  This 
photograph  shows  the  men  actually  using  the  instruments  for 
throwing  the  flames.  The  “  Flame  thrower  ”  was  first  introduced 


122 


GAS  IN  THE  OFFENSE. 


by  the  Huns.  The  Allies  perfected  the  weapon  and  now  the 
■Germans  have  to  face  their  own  kind  of  warfare  much  to  their 
discomfiture. 

FLAMMENWERFER. 

(Flaming  Liquid.) 


197.  Two  principal  kinds,  small  —  carried  by  one  man.  Large 
—  placed  in  larger  places. 

Iron  container,  3  feet  long  by  li  feet  wide,  two  hooks  for  the 
body. 

Mixture  of  heavy  and  light  oil  plus  gasoline. 

Its  range  is  from  50  to  60  yards.  New  ones  will  carry  from 
200  to  300  yards. 

It  is  very  dangerous  to  handle.  In  the  German  army  only 
special  men  handle  these  weapons. 

Kinds  of  oils  they  use  are  according  to  the  atmosphere. 

This  attack  is  fatal  to  whatever  it  touches. 

PART  2.—  SMOKE  BOMBS. 

198.  The  discharge  of  gas  and  smoke  or  smoke  alone  is  re¬ 
garded  by  the  enemy  as  a  prelude  to  the  assault,  and  usually 
draws  his  barrage  on  the  trenches  from  which  the  discharges  are 
issuing. 

This  may  be  taken  advantage  of  to  determine  the  general  line 
of  the  enemy  barrage  so  that  arrangements  can  be  made  to  avoid 
casualties  later  when  the  real  assault  takes  place. 

If  smoke  is  used  just  before  the  assault  to  conceal  the  ad¬ 
vance,  it  may  cause  the  assaulting  troops  to  lose  the  way  and 
bring  down  the  enemy  barrage  prematurely  but  it  may  be  use- 


Copyright  Underwood  <G  Underwood,  N.  Y. 

PHOTOGRAPH  OF  A  “  FLAME-THROWING  ”  ATTACK. 

The  latest  and  most  diabolical  warfare  to  be  introduced  was  origin¬ 
ated  by  the  Germans.  It  is  called  the  “  Flammenwerfer  ”  or  “  Flame- 
Thrower  ”  and  instead  of  spreading  gas  it  actually  throws  flames. 
This  photograph  shows  the  French  troops  making  a  rushing 
attack  with  the  flame-throwers.  The  air  is  tilled  with  smoke  and 
flames  which  are  deadly.  The  weapon  was  first  brought  out  by  the 
Germans.  The  Allies  perfected  the  machine  and  turned  it  on  the 
enemy  with  great  success.  The  Germans  did  not  like  their  own 
medicine. 


» 

. 

GAS  IN  THE  OFFENSE.  123 

fully  employed  over  those  portions  of  the  front  from  which  no 
assault  is  taking  place. 

Smoke  bombs  may  be  used  during  the  advance  (a)  to  blind 
any  machine  guns  likely  to  cause  trouble,  especially  on  the 
flanks  and  (b)  to  conceal  the  advance  of  the  reserves. 

As  regards  (a)  this  is  especially  effective  on  flanks  of  the 
attack. 

The  smoke  barrage  must  start  at  zero  and  should  be  as  rapid 
as  possible  to  insure  the  smoke  screen  being  forward  before  the 
enemy  has  time  to  discover  our  advance. 

As  regards  (b)  a  smoke  screen  can  be  employed  where  re¬ 
serves  detailed  for  the  assault  of  a  later  objective  have  to  cross 
a  long  stretch  of  open  ground  exposed  to  view  by  the  enemy  be¬ 
tween  our  jumping  off  trenches  and  the  line  already  gained  by 
our  troops. 

To  effect  this  the  mortars  should  be  sent  forward  as  soon  as 
possible  after  the  first  objective  has  been  captured  in  order  to  give 
them  time  to  establish  themselves  in  a  forward  position  to  get 
up  the  necessary  ammunition. 

Where  possible  the  detachments  of  the  special  Brigade  which 
will  be  working  with  the  Division  in  the  assault  should  be  pres¬ 
ent  during  the  training  and  should  actually  practice  the  barrages 
required  in  order  that  the  troops  especially  in  the  advance  of  the 
reserves  may  be  given  practice  in  advancing  through  the  smoke 
without  losing  direction. 

PART  3.— THE  TACTICAL  EMPLOYMENT  OF  GAS 

IN  OFFENSE. 

199.  Gas  having  been  generally  adopted  in  all  armies,  a  knowl¬ 
edge  of  the  technique  of  its  employment  in  offense  must  be 
considered. 

As  has  been  noted,  gas  may  be  employed  in  the  form  of  gas 
clouds  or  waves,  gas  shells,  gas  trench  mortar  bombs,  hand 
bombs  and  grenades.  The  proper  use  of  gas  in  the  form  of  a 
cloud  attack  is  of  so  technical  a  character  that  its  employment 
should  be  delegated  to  specially  trained  gas  companies  attached 
to  each  division.  In  the  English  Army  an  entire  brigade  of 
Royal  Army  engineers  has  been  organized  for  the  gas  offensive. 
This  brigade  is  under  the  command  of  a  general  officer  attached 
to  army  headquarters.  When  a  gas -cloud  attack  has  been  decided 


124 


GAS  IN  THE  OFFENSE. 


upon  the  gas  officer  should  make  a  survey  of  the  sector  in¬ 
volved  and  designate  the  location  of  the  batteries  of  gas  con¬ 
tainers.  These  batteries,  which  may  vary  from  3  to  12  containers, 
are  placed  in  specially  prepared  emplacements  under  the  front 
line  parapets  and  thoroughly  protected  from  shell  fire.  Inasmuch 
as  the  trenches  never  follow  a  straight  line  the  batteries  must 
be  so  located  that  when  the  gas  is  released  it  will  not  “enfilade” 
the  trench  containing  them.  Advantage  must  be  taken  of 
salients  so  facing  the  enemy  that  the  wind  will  carry  the  gas 
in  the  proper  direction.  The  best  distribution  of  the  gas  can  be 
accomplished  with  batteries  placed  at  intervals  of  from  30  to 
40  yards. 

The  weather  conditions  being  of  such  great  moment  in  the 
proper  accomplishment  of  a  gas-cloud  attack,  they  should  always 
be  studied  thoroughly.  To  this  end  meterological  stations  should 
be  established  along  the  front  and  daily  observations  recorded, 
tabulated,  and  charted.  The  ideal  weather  is  a  gentle  wind  blow¬ 
ing  in  the  right  direction  at  a  rate  of  4  to  6  miles  per 
hour;  fairly  high  humidity,  40  to  00  per  cent,  and  an  overcast 
sky.  The  upward  current  of  warm  air  on  a  sunny  day  rapidly 
dissipates  the  gas  and  on  such  a  day  the  best  time  for  attack  is 
in  the  early  morning  or  late  afternoon. 

The  order  for  a  gas  attack  should  be  given  in  detail.  It 

should  state  that  at  -  hour  on  the  first  day  when  weather 

conditions  are  suitable  a  gas  attack  will  be  made  on  - * 

sector  of  the  front  and  the  number  of  gas  waves  (rarely  more 
than  three)  and  the  time  for  releasing  each  wave  (so  many 

minutes  after  -  hour)  will  be  started.  Each  day  of  the 

week  should  be  given  a  code  designation  for  some  days  in  ad¬ 
vance.  By  this  means  when  the  proper  weather  condition  arrives, 
notification  to  attack  can  be  given  by  signaling  the  code  name. 
The  artillery  should  have  orders  to  open  fire  on  the  enemy 
trenches  immediately  after  the  gas  wave  has  arrived  and  a  heavy 
barrage  fire  also  instituted  to  prevent  the  bringing  up  of  rein¬ 
forcements.  For  this  barrage  gas  shells  are  especially  useful. 

PART  4.— METHOD  OF  MAKING  A  GAS  ATTACK. 

200.  The  gas -wave  attack  is  practically  always  followed  by  an 
infantry  attack,  and  therefore  the  most  perfect  coordination  is 
necessary  between  the  “gas  detail,”  the  artillery,  and  the  infantry, 


GAS  IN  THE  OFFENSE. 


125 


When  an  attack  is  to  be  made,  men  are  placed  in  charge  of  each 
battery  to  release  the  gas  when  the  order  is  given.  Each  battery 
is  connected  by  telephone  with  an  officer  of  the  gas  service 
responsible  for  a  given  sector  of  the  front,  and  he  in  turn  with 
the  line  officer  commanding  that  sector.  The  latter  is  connected 
with  local  and  distant  meterological  stations  and  with  artillery 
headquarters. 

The  time  for  delivering  the  infantry  attack  will  vary  some¬ 
what  with  the  atmospheric  condition  under  which  the  gas  was 
liberated.  Sufficient  time  should  elapse  for  at  least  part  of  the 
gas  has  been  disseminated,  for  with  an  efficient  barrage  fire 
there  is  little  chance  of  reinforcement  being  brought  forward. 

Gas-shell  attacks  are  also  dependent  to  some  extent  on  the 
condition  of  the  weather.  Inasmuch,  however,  as  by  means  of 
projectiles  the  gas  can  be  liberated  directly  in  the  enemy’s  lines, 
weather  conditions  are  not  nearly  so  important  as  they  are  in 
the  gas -cloud  attack. 

The  employment  of  gas  shells  may  be  in  conjunction  with  a 
gas -cloud  attack,  or  an  infantry  attack  without  a  preliminary 
gas-cloud  attack.  As  mentioned  above,  their  greatest  usefulness 
is  in  establishing  a  heavy  barrage  to  prevent  the  bringing  up  of 
reinforcements.  They  may  also  be  used  for  a  preliminary  bom¬ 
bardment  of  the  trenches,  the  noxious  gases  they  liberate  mate¬ 
rially  weakening  the  defense  in  many  instances.  Gas  shells  are 
also  of  distinct  value  in  directing  artillery  fire. 

GAS  AND  OIL  PROJECTORS. 

201.  Considerable  use  is  made  of  projectors  both  for  gas  and 
oil  with,  it  is  thought,  satisfactory  results.  The  tactics  pursued 
were  to  shepherd  parties  of  the  enemy  into  woods  and  leave 
certain  routes  free  from  heavy  shelling  and  then  to  concentrate 
with  projectors  on  such  places. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

PATHOLOGY  OF  GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 

INTRODUCTION. 

203.  The  employment  of  poisonous  gases  as  a  means  of  offen¬ 
sive  warfare  has  made  it  imperative  that  medical  officers  should 
have  some  knowledge  of  the  action  of  the  various  gases  that  are 
likely  to  be  met  with  and  of  rational  lines  of  treatment  which  may 
be  adopted  in  cases  of  gas  poisoning. 

Poisonous  gases  have  been  used  in  warfare  with  the  intention 
of  putting  men  out  of  action,  hampering  artillery,  preventing 
supports  from  advancing,  and  inspiring  general  terror,  so  that  an 
advance  may  be  made  with  a  minimum  of  opposition  and  some 
military  advantage  secured.  Apart  from  any  question  of  an 
advance,  poisonous  gases  have  been  used  merely  as  a  means  of 
causing  a  certain  number  of  casualties  on  the  opposing  side  and 
of  inspiring  terror. 

Besides  this  deliberate  use  of  gas  for  offensive  purposes,, 
poisonous  gases  are  liable  to  be  encountered  under  other  circum¬ 
stances — e.  g.,  during  mining  operations,  or  as  the  result  of  the 
imperfect  detonation  or  burning  of  explosives. 

PART  1.— THE  MODE  OF  ACTION  OF  POISONING  GASES., 

204.  Poisonous  gases  that  are  liable  to  be  met  with  can  be 
grouped  roughly,  according  to  the  main  physiological  action  that 
they  produce  on  the  animal  body.  It  must,  however,  be  clearly 
understood  that  it  is  impossible  to  draw  absolute  distinctions, 
since  many  of  the  gases  partake  of  the  characters  of  at  least 
two  of  the  groups. 

I.  GASES  WHICH  ACT  AS  LUNG  IRRITANTS. 

205.  The  main  characteristic  of  gases  of  this  group  is  that 
they  cause  the  onset  of  a  profuse  pulmonary  edema.  The  ac¬ 
cumulation  of  fluid  in  the  lungs  interferes  with  the  respiratory 
exchange,  causing  intense  cyanosis  and  death  by  asphyxia.  In 
addition  to  this  these  gases  are  irritating  to  the  respiratory  pass¬ 
ages,  some  of  them  intensely  so,  causing  great  pain  and  discom¬ 
fort  in  the  chest.  They  may  also  cause  marked  irritation  of  the 
eyes  and  lachrymation.  In  some  cases  circulatory  failure  is  a 
very  marked  feature,  and  the  cyanosis  may  then  give  place  to. 


128 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


the  leaden  pallor  of  collapse.  With  some  gases  of  this  class 
mild  poisoning  may  lead  to  a  condition  somewhat  akin  to 
atshma. 

Type  i — Chlorine — A  concentration  of  1  in  100,000  can  be 
respired  for  a  considerable  time,  though  this  may  give  rise  to  sub¬ 
sequent  bronchitis. 

A  concentration  of  1  in  10,000  is  barely  respirable  by  man  and 
experimentally  is  not  borne  for  more  than  two  or  three  breaths. 
It  produces  irritation  of  the  eyes,  spasm  of  the  glottis,  a  feeling 
of  choking,  and  severe  cough.  If  the  inhalation  is  continued,  the 
struggle  for  breath  becomes  more  acute  and  the  man  will  be 
rapidly  incapacitated.  In  such  a  concentration  edema  of  the 
lungs  commences  very  soon  and  develops  steadily. 

Type  2 — Nitrous  fumes,  i.  e.,  nitric  oxide  and  nitrogen  peroxide 
— Sensory  irritation  of  the  eyes  and  upper  respiratory  passages  is 
slight  as  a  rule,  and  passes  off  in  a  short  time  after  leaving  the 
dangerous  atmosphere.  For  some  time  after  this  the  man  may 
feel  perfectly  well  and  go  about  his  ordinary  business,  but  after 
the  lapse  of  a  few  hours  acute  symptoms  of  pulmonary  edema 
suddenly  come  on  and  progress  with  alarming  rapidity. 

In  contradistinction  to  chlorine  poisoning,  there  is,  therefore,  a 
very  definite  delay  before  the  onset  of  pulmonary  edema,  and  the 
slightness  of  the  symptoms  shown  by  the  man  while  he  is  in  the 
dangerous  atmosphere  would  not  naturally  lead  one  to  anticipate 
the  disastrous  effects  which  may  develop  later. 

Type  3 — Phosgene. — In  certain  characteristics  this  gas  holds  an 
intermediate  position  between  chlorine  and  nitrous  fumes.  Though 
it  is  a  more  intense  eye  irritant  than  chlorine,  it  is  not  so  imme¬ 
diately  irritant  to  the  upper  respiratory  passages  and  there  is 
some  delay  before  the  onset  of  pulmonary  edema.  Circulatory 
failure  is  apt  to  be  a  prominent  feature  and  cases  exhibiting  a 
leaden  pallor  and  collapse  are  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception. 
Phosgene  incapacitates  a  man  more  slowly  than  chlorine  but  is 
a  more  serious  poison. 

II.  Gases  Which  Act  as  Eye  Irritants  or  Lachrymators: 

206.  The  main  characteristics  of  this  group  of  gases  are  that  in 
exceedingly  small  concentrations  they  exert  an  intense  irritant 
effect  on  the  eyes  and  cause  so  profuse  a  flow  of  tears  and  often 
so  much  pain  that  vision  may  be  impossible.  In  stronger  con¬ 
centration  they  may  also  act  as  acute  lung  irritants. 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


129 


Type — Benzyl  bromide— A  very  minute  concentration  causes 
marked  lachrymation.  A  liigh  concentration,  when  the  eyes  are 
protected,  rapidly  causes  respiratory  discomfort,  irritation  of  the 
throat,  and  nausea. 

III.  Gases  Which  Act  as  Direct  Poisons  of  the  Nervous  System: 

207.  The  characteristics  of  this  group  of  gases  are  that  in  suf¬ 
ficient  concentration  they  act  on  the  central  nervous  system  with 
great  rapidity,  causing  a  cessation  and  finally  a  total  abolition  of 
its  functions.  Some  of  these  gases  cause  delayed  pulmonary 
edema  in  cases  which  have  not  succumbed  rapidly  from  the  effects 
on  the  central  nervous  system. 

Type — Hydrocyanic  acid. — Minute  concentrations  are  practically 
innocuous.  High  concentrations  cause  immediate  unconsciousness 
and  death  in  a  few  seconds. 

Animals  if  taken  out  of  the  poisonous  atmosphere  as  soon  as 
they  have  fallen  down  paralyzed,  may  recover  perfectly  in  a 
short  time. 

IV.  Gases  Which  Act  by  Interfering  With  the  Respiratory  Prop¬ 
erties  of  the  Blood: 

208.  Under  this  heading  may  be  grouped  cases  which  cause 
destruction  of  red  cells,  alter  the  hemoglobin,  or  combine  with  the 
hemoglobin  to  the  exclusion  of  oxygen,  so  that  severe  symptoms 
arise  because  the  oxygen-carrying  power  of  the  blood  is  inter¬ 
fered  with.  Certain  cases  may,  for  instance,  lead  to  destruction 
of  red  cells,  accompanied  by  hemoglobinuria  or  jaundice.  Again, 
nitrous  fumes  in  strong  concentration  may  cause  the  alteration 
of  hemoglobin  into  methemoglobin  in  addition  to  producing  the 
intense  irritation  of  the  lungs  mentioned  above. 

Carbon  monoxide. — This  gas  owes  its  poisonous  action  to  the 
fact  that  it  combines  with  hemoglobin  to  form  a  dissociable  com¬ 
pound  and  thereby  takes  the  place  of  oxygen.  Carbon  monoxide 
has  about  300  times  the  affinity,  for  hemoglobin  that  oxygen  has. 
If  therefore  a  small  proportion  carbon  monoxide  is  present  in 
the  air  breathed,  the  hemoglobin  in  the  body  will  divide  itself 
between  the  two  gases,  the  final  partition  being  determined  by 
the  relative  concentration  of  the  two  gases.  The  oxygen -carrying 
power  of  the  blood  is  progressively  diminished  as  the  hemoglobin 

5 


130 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


becomes  more  and  more  saturated  with  carbon  monoxide,  and 
symptoms  arise  owing  to  the  interference  with  the  oxygen  supply 
to  the  tissues  from  this  cause. 

Circumstances  Under  Which  Gas  Poisoning  May  Be  Met  With 
In  Warfare: 

209.  Some  poisonous  gases  of  the  foregoing  groups  are  well 
adapted  for  use  as  offensive  agents  in  warfare,  while  others  are 
unsuitable  owing  to  various  causes,  such  as  difficulty  of  manufac¬ 
ture  or  of  storage,  chemical  instability,  limited  toxicity  save  in 
high  concentrations  or  after  prolonged  exposure,  or  insufficient 
density.  Though  the  acute  lung  irritants  as  a  whole  must  be 
classed  among  the  more  powerful  methods  of  destruction,  nitrous 
fumes  do  not  lend  themselves  to  deliberate  offensive  use.  They 
may  be  met  with  during  warfare  accidentally  under  certain  cir¬ 
cumstances.  Carbon  monoxide,  too,  is  not  adapted  to  offensive  use, 
though  it  may  prove  a  very  serious  factor  indeed  when  met  with 
during  mining  operations. 

PART  2.— THE  USE  OF  GAS  FOR  OFFENSIVE  PURPOSES. 

210.  (a)  Cloud  gas — The  rate  at  which  the  cloud  gas  is  carried  over 
the  ground  intervening  between  the  trenches  of  the  two  opposing 
forcec  depends  entirely  on  the  velocity  of  the  wind.  With  winds 
at  the  rates  of  3,  9,  and  15  miles  per  hour,  the  gas  cloud  would  move 
forward  at  the  rate  of  90,270,  and  450  yards  per  minute,  respect¬ 
ively;  and  with  a  wind  of  91  miles  per  hour,  the  distance  of  100 
yards  would  be  covered  in  about  20  seconds.  These  figures 
indicate  how  short  may  be  the  time  available  for  warning  men 
in  the  front  trenches  of  the  commencement  of  a  cloud  gas  attack 
and  emphasize  the  extreme  importance  of  training  troops  thor¬ 
oughly  in  the  use  of  protective  devices. 

(b)  Gas  shells  and  gas  bombs. — In  this  case  tin  poisonous- 
substance  is  contained  in  liquid  form  in  the  shell  or  bomb  and  is 
converted  into  a  cloud  of  vapor  on  the  explosion  As  a  rule  these 
shells  are  employed  to  produce  a  toxic  effect  at  a  distance  over 
a  limited  area  and  are  most  frequently  used  against  batteries,  or 
in  the  form  of  a  “tir  de  barrage”  to  interfere  with  the  move¬ 
ments  of  supports  during  an  engagement. 

The  commonest  gas  shell  used  by  the  Germans  contains  the 
lachrymators,  benzyl,  and  xylyl  bromides,  but  shells  containing 
acute  lung  irritants  have  aso  been  employed. 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


131 


A  cloud  gas  attack  necessitates  a  favorable  wind  blowing  toward 
the  enemy’s  position,  but  gas  shells  can  be  used  even  if  the  md 
is  blowing  toward  the  user,  since  if  the  gas  is  blown  back,  it  will 
have  been  so  diluted  with  air  as  to  be  harmless  to  him.  A  cloud 
gas  attack  may  be  preceded  or  accompanied  by  a  gas  shell  at¬ 
tack,  and  gas  shells  of  different  forms  may  be  fired  not  only  on 
points  behind  the  trenches  but  also  on  the  front  line  and  support 
trenches  as  well. 

Medical  officers  must,  therefore,  remember  that  more  than  one 
method  may  be  used  at  the  same  time  during  a  gas  attack  and 
that  different  chemical  substances  may  be  simultaneously  em¬ 
ployed.  They  must  in  consequence  be  on  the  watch  for  differ¬ 
ences  in  the  symptoms  presented  by  gassed  cases  so  that  they 
may  report  the  facts  to  headquarters  and  adopt  suitable  treat¬ 
ment. 

Circumstances  Under  Which  Poisonous  Gases  Other  Than  Those 
Used  Deliberately  For  Offensive  Purposes  Are  Liable  To  Be 
Encountered: 

21 1.  (n)  Mine  gases. —  During  mining  operations  the  most 
dangerous  gas  met  with  is  carbon  monoxide.  This  arises  from 
the  imperfect  detonation  or  combustion  of  the  explosives  used  for 
charging  the  mine  or  for  blasting.  The  galleries  may  be  flooded 
with  the  gas  after  the  explosion  of  either  our  own  or  a  hostile 
mine,  as  the  result  of  the  explosion  of  a  hostile  camouflet 
designed  to  blow  in  our  galleries,  or  as  the  result  of  the  ex¬ 
plosion  or  burning  of  a  blasting  charge.  The  gas  is  liable  to  be 
driven  into  the  ground  disturbed  by  the  explosion  and  to  come 
welling  out  later,  especially  if  the  barometer  commences  to  fall 
after  the  explosion,  or  it  may  be  met  with  in  the  form  of  pockets 
of  gas  when  new  galleries  are  driven  through  ground  disturbed 
by  a  previous  explosion.  Carbon  monoxide  has  even  been  known 
to  be  driven  out  of  the  shafts  into  the  adjacent  trenches  after 
the  explosion  of  a  mine. 

Besides  carbon  monoxide,  nitrous  fumes  may  arise  if  a  charge 
does  not  explode  properly,  and  especially  if  it  burns  instead  of 
exploding.  Nitrous  fumes  are  quickly  absorbed  by  moist  ground, 
and  so  cases  of  nitrous  fumes  poisoning  are  seldom  met  with 
unless  men  are  exposed  to  the  fumes  immediately  after  the  ex¬ 
plosion  or  the  burning  of  the  charge. 


132 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


(b)  Fumes  from  high-explosive  shells. —  Nitrous  fumes  have  so 
far  given  rise  to  no  cases  of  poisoning  after  the  explosion  of 
high-explosive  shells.  Cases  of  carbon  monoxide  poisoning  have 
been  known  to  arise  under  special  circumstances  —  e.  g.,  when  a 
shell  has  penetrated  into  a  deep  dug-out  before  bursting.  Such 
cases  are,  however,  unlikely  to  arise  unless  the  shell  explodes  in 
a  confined  space,  since  either  a  high  concentration  or  a  prolonged 
exposure  is  required  for  the  production  of  symptoms. 

(c)  Fumes  from  the  firing  of  guns. —  In  closed  machine-gun 
emplacements,  owing  to  the  blowback  from  the  gun,  enough  CO 
sometimes  gets  into  the  air  to  give  rise  to  symptoms.  Symptoms 
of  CO  poisoning  are  also  sometimes  caused  in  gun  pits  owing 
to  the  blowback  on  opening  the  breech  when  certain  forms  of 
powder  are  used. 

(d)  Burning  of  nitro  explosives. —  If  nitro  explosives  are  acci¬ 
dentally  set  on  fire  and  continue  to  burn  without  explosion,  there 
is  great  danger  of  poisoning  from  nitrous  fumes.  Carbon  mon¬ 
oxide  poisoning  may  also  occur. 

(e)  Burning  buildings. — It  must  be  remembered  that  when 
combustion  takes  place  in  a  limited  supply  of  air  as  in  the  in¬ 
terior  of  a  burning  building  there  is  a  considerable  risk  of  carbon 
monoxide  poisoning. 

(f)  Warming  of  billets. — A  burning  coke  brazier  in  a  small, 
ill-ventilated  billet  is  very  likely  to  give  rise  to  cases  of  carbon 
monoxide  poisoning. 

Poisoning  by  Gas  Cloud  : 

212.  The  gas  used  by  the  Germans  in  attacks  made  on  the 
English  trenches  by  poisonous  clouds  drifting  forward  on  the 
wind  was  in  the  early  summer  of  1915  chiefly,  if  not  solely,  chlo¬ 
rine.  Later  it  became  apparent  from  the  change  of  symptoms  in 
casualties  that  a  different  form  of  gas  was  being  employed  and 
this  is  believed,  though  not  proved,  to  be  a  mixture  of  chlorine 
with  varying  proportions  of  carbonyl  chloride  or  phosgene  gas. 
It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  describe  separately  the  action  of 
each  type  of  cloud  gas. 

PART  3. — CLOUD  GAS  OF  1915,  1916,  1917. 

Cloud  Gas  of  Summer  of  1915  : 

213.  The  following  account  of  the  pathological  changes  is  based 
entirely  upon  observations  made  on  men  injured  by  German  cloud 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


133 


gas  in  1915,  and  these  observations  coincide  with  what  has  been 
noted  in  laboratory  experiments  with  chlorine.  The  effects  may 
be  classified  under  the  following  headings  : 

Irritation  and  inflammation  of  the  respiratory  tract. 

Interference  with  the  circulation. 

General  toxic  effects. 

Respiratory  Tract  : 

214.  Chlorine  is  very  irritant.  Sensory  nerves  are  violently 
stimulated,  causing  immediate  pain  and  uncontrollable  reflex 
movements,  such  as  coughing  or  spasmodic  gasping,  which  inter¬ 
fere  with  respiration.  Lachrymation  is  relatively  slight.  A  heavy 
concentration  of  the  gas  seems  almost  irrespirable  but  the  spas¬ 
modic  check  to  breathing  ultimately  gives  way,  and  no  case  of 
death  from  asphyxia  immediately  upon  exposure  to  the  gas  has 
been  proved  to  have  occurred  in  the  English  lines.  Breathing 
continues,  but  it  is  of  a  spasmodic  character  and  accompanied  by 
violent  coughing  which,  as  will  be  described  later,  has  a  very 
harmful  effect  on  the  lungs. 

The  irritation  of  the  sensory  nerves,  however,  is  not  the  fatal 
factor.  An  inflammatory  reaction,  with  congestion  of  the  vessels, 
edema  of  the  tissues  and  an  abundant  discharge  of  serous  effusion 
through  the  dying  epithelium  occurs  all  the  way  down  the  re¬ 
spiratory  tract.  This  begins  at  the  back  of  the  throat;  the  larynx, 
with  its  resistant  epithelium,  escapes  injury,  but  the  damage  to 
the  surface  tissues  increases  progressively  down  the  trachea,  the 
bronchi  and  their  finer  branchings,  and  ultimately  attains  its 
maximum  in  the  air  sacs.  The  bronchioles  are  rapidly  filled  with 
a  serous  exudate  which  passes  up  into  the  trachea  and  is  coughed 
out.  • 

A  universal  obstruction  in  this  way  of  the  bronchioles  alone 
would  suffice  to  cause  death  by  simple  blockage  of  the  airway 
and  asphyxia.  But  the  injury  is  not  confined  to  the  bronchial 
tree  and  probably  the  effusion  in  the  tubes  alone  is  not  dense 
enough  to  hinder  the  passage  of  some  air  up  and  down,  though 
even  this  thin  fluid  may  constitute  a  very  serious  mechanical  ob¬ 
struction  when  it  is  churned  up  into  a  continuous  foam  by  violent 
respiratory  efforts.  At  first  there  may  be  so  much  spasmodic 
contraction  of  the  muscles  of  the  smaller  bronchioles  that  the 
gas  is  denied  access  to  many  areas  of  the  lungs.  Sooner  or  later 
these  relax,  and  the  irritant  vapors  then  destroy  the  pulmonary 


134 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


epithelium,  while  the  air  sacs  rapidly  fill  up  with  inflammatory 
exudate  and  become  utterly  useless  for  the  purpose  of  respira¬ 
tory  exchange.  The  edematous  effusion  must  ultimately  compress 
the  capillaries  and  cause  great  hindrance  to  the  flow  of  blood 
through  the  lungs.  The  irritation  spreads  so  widely  that  a  blood¬ 
stained  serous  effusion  soon  accumulates  in  the  pleural  cavity, 
but  this  is  never  so  abundant  as  to  require  aspiration. 

In  addition  to  this  inflammatory  edema,  which  chokes  the  cir¬ 
culation  and  prevents  gaseous  exchange,  there  is  often  some  actual 
damage  to  the  structure  of  the  lungs.  The  violent  coughing  and 
inspiratory  efforts  which  t  may  result  from  inhalation  of  the  gas 
may  be  so  forcible  that  the  partitions  between  the  alveoli  are 
torn  and  air  may  even  burst  its  way  out  into  the  areolar  tissue 
and  escape  along  the  hilum  of  the  lung  and  up  into  the  subcuta¬ 
neous  tissues  of  the  neck.  Such  disruptive  emphysema  adds  at 
once  to  the  disability  of  the  sufferer,  since  it  throws  out  of  action 
that  part  of  the  lung  which  is  not  yet  submerged  in  the  rising 
flood  of  edema  fluid,  and  it  may  lead  to  permanent  shortness 
of  breath  if  the  man  survives. 

There  are,  therefore,  four  factors  which  develop  in  rapid  suc¬ 
cession  and  prevent  exchange  of  respiratory  gases  through  the 
lungs  : 

(1)  Narrowing  of  the  bronchioles  by  spasmodic  contraction  of 
muscles  in  their  walls. 

(2)  Disruptive  emphysema. 

(3)  Obstruction  of  the  bronchial  tubes  by  exudate. 

(4)  Flooding  of  the  pulmonary  air  sacs  by  serous  effusion  into 
them. 

The  result  of  these  changes  in  the  lungs,  of  which  (3)  and  (4) 
are  the  most  important,  is  that  the  intake  of  oxygen  and  the 
elimination  of  carbon  dioxide  are  seriously  interfered  with,  and 
the  man  passes  into  a  state  of  asphyxial  cyanosis  in  which  mental 
failure  and  unconsciousness  may  rapidly  supervene.  During  this 
state  the  breathing  is  labored,  rapid,  and  interrupted  by  spas¬ 
modic  bouts  of  coughing.  The  blue  color  of  the  face  shows  the 
urgent  need  for  oxygen,  and  every  muscular  effort  made  by  the 
body  and  by  ‘the  heart  increases  that  need.  Coughing  is  helpful 
in  so  far  as  it  may  dislodge  exudate  from  the  bronchi,  but  the 
violent  effort  is  prodigal  of  such  oxygen  as  can  be  supplied  and 
it  tends  to  increase  the  disruptive  emphysema.  The  increased 
respiration  is  caused  both  by  the  accumulation  of  carbon  dioxide 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


135 


and  by  the  want  of  oxygen  and  not  by  the  absorption  of  any 
poisonous  substance  from  the  gas.  In  itself,  this  increased 
breathing  does  no  harm  and  it  helps  in  eliminating  COo  and  in¬ 
creasing  the  intake  of  oxygen  which  are  the  chief  needs  of  the 
moment. 

Interference  with  circulation. — The  ordinary  phenomena  in  as¬ 
phyxia  of  mechanical  origin  are  that  the  blood  pressure  rises 
and  that  the  heart  soon  loses  its  full  driving  power  because  its 
muscle  cannot  maintain  this  increased  effort  when  it  is  working 
with  a  scanty  supply  of  oxygen.  Consequently  the  pulse  rate 
quickens,  the  right  heart  dilates  and  the  blood  tends  to  be  pooled 
up  behind  it  in  the  great  veins.  If  this  failure  proceeds  apace, 
a  patient  who  at  the  beginning  showed  congestive  cyanosis  of 
the  face  with  a  full  pulse  will  gradually  assume  a  gray  pallor 
while  the  pulse  accelerates  and  falls  off  in  power.  These  changes 
are  present  in  cloud  gas  poisoning  and  they  are  augmented  by 
the  edema  of  the  lungs,  which  directly  obstructs  the  pulmonary 
circulation  and  causes  an  earlier  failure  of  the  right  side  of  the 
heart. 

If  the  patient  during  this  critical  time  tries  to  carry  on  his 
work  and  remain  standing,  he  will  use  up  still  more  rapidly  the 
little  oxygen  that  he  is  receiving,  extra  work  will  be  loaded  on  to 
a  heart  which  is  already  overstrained  and  the  circulation  will  be 
likely  to  fail  still  more  speedily  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of 
maintaining  compensation  in  the  upright  posture. 

There  is  no  interference  with  the  respiratory  properties  of  the 
blood  which  can  at  once  take  up  any  oxygen  that  reaches  it 
through  the  lungs. 

General  toxic  effects. — Experiments  indicate  that  chlorine  is  not 
absorbed  from  the  lungs  and  that  the  effects  produced  by  this 
gas  are  only  a  direct  and  local  inflammation  with  secondary 
results  which  are  either  of  a  mechanical  nature  or  caused  by 
oxygen  want  or  due  to  a  nervous  reflex  from  the  seat  of  injury. 
Changes  of  a  general  nature  do  undeniably  appear  in  the  nervous, 
circulatory,  alimentary,  and  renal  systems  of  a  man  who  has 
been  poisoned  by  cloud  gas,  but  these  are  probably  the  result  of 
the  asphyxia  rather  than  of  the  direct  action  of  the  gas.  Thus 
in  the  mild  cases  there  is  a  sense  of  fatigue  and  of  being  alto¬ 
gether  done  up,  and  in  the  serious  cases  even  unconsciousness, 
but  these  features  are  not  in  excess  of  what  may  result  from 
oxygen  want.  The  retching  and  vomiting  that  generally  occur  in 


136 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


the  first  stages  of  poisoning  may  be  due  only  to  direct  irritation 
of  the  back  of  the  throat  and  of  the  stomach  by  the  gas,  or  may 
be  the  direct  sequence  of  violent  bouts  of  coughing,  while  the 
diarrhea,  which  sometimes  is  an  early  feature,  may  be  that  of 
emotion. 

Microscopic  examination  of  the  kidneys  in  death,  a  few  days 
after  gassing,  reveals  very  definite  inflammatory  and  destructive 
changes,  and  such  kidneys  may  be  swollen  and  enlarged  as 
though  with  a  parenchymatous  nephritis.  This  change,  however 
produced,  rarely  leads  to  any  clinical  feature  of  renal  trouble.  In 
the  first  few  days  the  urine  contains  neither  sugar  nor  albumen 
nor  many  casts,  and  it  is  very  unusual  for  albuminuria  to  develop 
later. 

The  circulation  may  fail  with  unexpected  rapidity  and  the 
patient  soon  present  the  aspect  of  a  leaden  gray  cyanosis.  But  in 
general  terms  the  clinical  picture  with  chlorine  may  be  summed 
up  as  that  of  a  man  suffering  from  intense  irritation  of  the  re¬ 
spiratory  tract  and  dying  by  asphyxia  from  the  fluid  that  has 
drowned  his  lungs.  It  does  not  suggest  a  deeper  toxic  action. 

Post-mortem  findings. —  In  a  case  of  death  at  24  hours  after  gas¬ 
sing,  the  trachea  and  bronchi  are  purple  red  and  congested,  while 
a  thin  serous  exudate  wells  up  into  them  from  the  lungs.  The 
latter  organs  are  heavy  and  edematous,  while  aerated  islets  of 
emphysematous  overdistention  alternate  with  depressed  purple 
patches  of  collapse.  On  section,  serous  fluid  drips  abundantly 
from  the  lung  tissue.  Air  that  has  escaped  from  ruptured  vesicles 
is  seep  in  chains  of  bubbles  on  the  surface  of  the  lungs,  along  the 
interlobar  fissure  and  even  penetrating  the  tissues  of  the  medias¬ 
tinum.  In  some  of  the  earliest  cases  the  most  intense  disruptive 
emphysema  was  observed,  destroying  the  air  sacs  and  interfering 
with  the  circulation  in  their  walls. 

Petechial  hemorrhages  appear  on  the  surface  of  the  lungs,  on 
the  heart,  and  also  on  the  inner  surface  of  the  stomach.  All  the 
veins  are  greatly  distended  and  the  abdominal  viscera  are  en¬ 
gorged  Avith  dark  blood  that  clots  very  early  after  death.  The 
heart  itself  may  fail  to  show  right-sided  dilatation,  for  this  does 
not  of  necessity  appear  post  mortem  in  cases  of  aspliyxial  death. 

If  the  man  succumbs  at  a  later  date,  inflammatory  complica¬ 
tions  appear  on  the  lungs.  There  is  superficial  pleurisy,  scattered 
broncho-pneumonia,  and  a  purulent  secretion  in  the  bronchi.  The 
serous  exudate  will  then  be  found  to  have  disappeared  and  no 
fluid  drips  from  the  cut  surface  of  the  lungs. 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


137 


CLOUD  GAS  OF  1916  and  1917. 

215.  The  symptoms  tend  to  differ  from  those  produced  by 
chlorine  in  three  main  details. 

(1)  Subjective  respiratory  irritation  is  much  less  in  evidence. 
The  men  do  not  suffer  with  such  violent  coughing  when  first 
exposed  to  the  gas.  There  is  consequently  less  disruptive  emphy¬ 
sema  of  the  lungs,  and  subcutaneous  emphysema  of  the  neck  is 
rare,  while  post-mortem  examination  in  early  cases  often  fails  to 
find  anything  more  than  a  little  escape  of  air  along  the  inter 
lobar  fissure. 

(2)  The  poisonous  effects  may  appear  speedily  with  cyanotic 
asphyxia,  but  sometimes  they  are  more  insidious  in  their  onset. 
A  man  may  feel  able  to  carry  on  his  work  for  an  hour  or  two 
with  only  trivial  symptoms;  then  he  rapidly  becomes  worse  and 
passes  into  a  state  of  grayish  white  collapse,  with  progressive  edema 
of  the  lungs  that  may  soon  be  fatal.  It  has  even  been  reported 
from  the  trenches  that  men  who  have  passed  through  a  gas  at¬ 
tack  and  seemed  to  have  suffered  but  slightly  have  died  abruptly 
some  hours  later  upon  attempting  some  bodily  effort. 

(3)  Features  suggestive  of  general  collapse  are  more  in  evi¬ 
dence.  There  is  a  much  greater  tendency  to  circulatory  failure. 
Many  of  the  cases  that  die  on  the  first  day  show  a  leaden  gray 
tint  of  the  face  rather  than  a  purple  red  cyanosis;  the  pulse  is 
rapid  and  of  poor  tension.  Mental  confusion  or  mild  delirium  with 
restlessness  and  unconsciousness  become  more  prominent  in  the 
severe  cases. 

No  case  has  been  reported  in  the  armies  of  death  immediately 
upon  exposure  to  the  gas,  although  men  have  gone  through  an 
attack  of  gas  in  high  concentration  without  wearing  a  mask  at 
all  and  succumbed  in  consequence  an  hour  or  more  later. 

The  action  of  phosgene  (COCI2)  differs  from  that  of  chlorine  in 
certain  respects.  Upon  meeting  moist  surfaces  it  is  broken  up 
and  hydrochloric  acid  is  liberated.  It  excites  less  spasm  than  does 
chlorine  in  the  upper  respiratory  tract,  and  so  can  penetrate  to 
the  innermost  recesses  of  the  lungs,  where  it  causes  an  irritant 
edema  which  may  be  a  little  delayed  in  its  development,  like  that 
caused  by  the  acids  formed  from  nitrous  fumes,  although  the  de- 
,  lay  in  the  latter  case  is  more  prolonged.  Experiments  do  not 
show  that  the  products  of  phosgene  are  absorbed  from  the  lung 
and  act  as  general  poisons  apart  from  their  local  action. 


138 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


Post-Mortem  Findings  : 

216.  Two  hours  after  exposure  to  gas. — In  a  case  of  death  by 
asphyxial  cyanosis  where  inflammatory  effusion  had  developed 
with  great  rapidity  the  lungs  were  smaller  than  normal,  heavy, 
uniformly  airless  and  purple,  so  that  each  resembled  a  big  spleen. 
There  was  no  disruptive  emphysema.  Thin  serous  fluid  ran 
abundantly  from  the  surface  when  cut  across.  Each  pleural  cav¬ 
ity  contained  about  15  ounces  of  serous  effusion. 

Second  and  third  day. — There  is  no  striking  difference  between 
the  cases  which  had  shown  pallid  collapse  and  those  which  suc¬ 
cumbed  in  extreme  cyanosis.  The  condition  of  the  heart  is  found 
to  be  variable,  but  there  is  always  evidence  in  the  viscera  of  vas¬ 
cular  engorgement  from  failure  of  circulation.  The  lungs  never 
show  voluminous  emphysema,  and  indeed  the  earlier  the  death 
the  greater  is  the  serous  edema  in  their  substance.  On  the  second 
day  the  fluid  does  not  drip  quite  so  freely  from  the  cut  surface 
as  on  the  first,  and  toward  the  beginning  of  the  third  day  the 
general  aeration  of  the  lung  is  everywhere  greater,  while  rela¬ 
tively  large  islets  of  well-aerated  and  slightly  emphysematous 
lung  may  be  present  between  areas  of  edema  or  of  collapse.  This 
aerated  condition  appears  at  first  in  the  lower  lobes  of  the  lungs 
where  they  are  in  contact  with  the  diaphragm,  while  edema 
persists  longest  and  is  most  profuse  in  the  upper  lobes. 

A  day  later  and  no  serous  fluid  at  all  escapes  from  the  cut 
surface.  At  this  date  inflammatory  complications  tend  to  appear 
in  a  surface  pleurisy,  and  areas  of  the  lung  are  found  to  be 
slightly  friable  and  entering  into  a  condition  of  broncho-pneu¬ 
monia.  > 

It  may  be  that  cases  of  extensive  and  overwhelming  edema 
succumb  at  once,  while  those  in  which  on  the  second  or  third 
day  larger  islets  of  aerated  lung  alternating  with  edematous 
patches  are  seen,  had  from  the  beginning  been  in  that  state,  so 
that  they  succumbed  later  than  the  completely  edematous  group 
because  the  injury  to  the  lung  was  less.  But  the  general  evi¬ 
dence  favors  a  more  hopeful  view,  namely,  that  the  edema  fluid 
is  rapidly  absorbed  from  the  second  day  onward,  and  that  the 
later  post  mortems  illustrate  the  stages  in  this  recovery.  The 
chief  fact  in  support  of  this  view  is  that  patients  who  had  been  r 
deeply  cyanosed  at  first,  with  the  usual  signs  of  extensive  pulmo¬ 
nary  edema,  and  so  asphyxiated  as  to  be  unconscious  for  a  couple 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


139 


of  days,  may  yet  recover  so  completely  that  eight  or  nine  days 
after  exposure  to  gas  it  is  difficult  to  discover  any  physical  signs 
of  edema  in  the  lung. 

Symptoms : 

217.  Onset. — ’Upon  exposure  to  chlorine  alone,  a  man  feels  im¬ 
mediate  respiratory  distress.  He  coughs  violently  and  speech  is 
made  impossible  by  his  spluttering  gasps.  With  the  later  forms 
of  drift  gas,  the  onset  is  slightly  altered.  There  is  some  lachry- 
mation.  The  throat  feels  gripped  and  the  chest  tight.  Breathing 
is  difficult  but  not  impossible.  Coughing  develops  a  quarter  of 
an  hour  or  more  later.  Nausea  and  vomiting  appear  quickly, 
so  that  a  man  who  was  slow  in  getting  protection  may  vomit  in¬ 
side  his  gas  mask.  Headache  and  throbbing  sensations  in  the 
body  are  experienced. 

Development. —  Coughing  and  retching  increase.  The  respiration 
becomes  very  hurried  and  labored,  though  shallow.  The  patient’s 
face  assumes  a  cyanotic  hue;  he  may  lose  muscular  power  and 
consciousness  and  die  in  an  hour  or  two.  Those  who  survive 
longer  show  the  following  features: 

Headache,  pain  behind  the  sternum  and  in  the  epigastrium. 
Extreme  restlessness  and  anxiety,  or  a  semicoma  with  a  mutter¬ 
ing  delirium,  from  which  as  a  rule  they  can  be  roused  to  answer 
questions.  Varying  cough,  sometimes  slight,  sometimes  reiterant 
with  a  croupous  rattling  from  exudate  in  the  trachea.  There  is 
practically  no  laryngitis.  A  cyanotic  blueness  in  the  lips  and 
ears,  which  may  accompany  a  flushed  lividity  of  the  face  or  the 
grayish-yellow  pallor  of  collapse.  Extremely  rapid  respiration, 
from  40  up  to  even  80  a  minute,  of  a  shallow  type  on  a  dis¬ 
tended  chest,  and  often  marked  by  a  jerking  grunt  of  expiration. 
A  pulse  of  about  100,  which  may  rise  to  a  higher  rate  and  fall 
to  a  very  low  pressure  in  the  gray  examples  of  collapse.  The 
skin  is  dry,  and  either  hot  or  cold  in  correspondence  with  the 
state  of  collapse.  Expectoration  may  be  very  slight,  though  in 
others  there  soon  develops  an  abundant  discharge  of  thin  watery 
fluid,  often  streaked  with  blood,  which  simply  flows  from  the 
mouth  as  the  dying  patient  loses  power  to  expel  it.  After  death, 
the  foam  from  this  fluid  may  dry  to  a  wrhite  efflorescence  around 
the  mouth.  The  percussion  note  is  slightly  flattened  over  the 
lungs  behind,  where  the  breath  sounds  are  much  weakened,  but 


140 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


otherwise  unchanged  m  quality,  Fine  rales  are  heard  behind 
and  in  the  axillae.  There  are  no  tubular  breath  sounds.  In  front 
there  may  be  extremely  little  change  beyond  harshness  in  the 
breath  sounds.  The  physical  signs  fail  altogether  to  indicate  the 
extent  to  which  the  lungs  are  damaged,  for  in  any  area  examined 
there  is  always  some  aeration  of  the  bronchioles  and  alveoli  which 
suffices  to  produce  relatively  normal  sounds  on  auscultation. 

The  color,  the  pulse,  and  the  rate  of  respiration  are  the  chief 
guides  to  prognosis. 

Progress. — -Four-fifths  of  the  deaths  occur  in  the  first  24  hours. 
Very  few  succumb  after  the  third  day.  A  man,  who  at  first 
seemed  to  be  lightly  gassed,  may,  toward  the  end  of  the  first 
day,  develop  cyanosis  and  die;  but  from  the  end  of  the  second 
day  onward,  there  is  no  danger  to  be  apprehended  for  the  less 
grave  cases.  On  the  second  day  the  sputum  becomes  less  abund¬ 
ant,  more  viscous  and  yellow  tinted.  The  dyspnea  persists  and 
the  temperature  is  raised.  If  complications  develop  subsequently 
from  infections  of  the  raw  respiratory  tract,  they  will  be  shown 
by  persistence  of  fever,  by  a  purulent  sputum,  and  by  signs  of 
broncho-pneumonic  consolidation. 

But  as  a  rule  the  patient  recovers  rapidly  after  the  third  day, 
and  at  the  end  of  a  week  he  is  fully  convalescent.  Cough,  pain 
in  the  chest,  which  is  often  very  severe  beneath  the  rib  margins, 
shortness  of  breath,  loss  of  appetite  with  gastric  pain,  and  gen¬ 
eral  lassitude  persist  longest  of  the  symptoms.  There  are  no  seri¬ 
ous  after  results  to  be  apprehended.  A  man  who  has  been  badly 
gassed  requires  a  long  rest;  but  the  majority,  if  free  from  neur¬ 
asthenic  symptoms,  are  fit  for  light  duty  in  a  very  few  weeks, 
provided  that  they  are  allowed  sufficient  rest  at  first.  The  heart 
and  circulation  are  severely  strained  by  gas  poisoning.  Conva¬ 
lescents  who  show  tachycardia  must  be  carefully  watched  lest  too 
heavy  physical  effort  early  in  the  first  month  of  recovery  induces 
further  strain  and  lead  to  the  condition  of  irritable  soldier’s 
heart,  from  which  recovery  will  be  long  delayed. 

Rarities: 

218.  Brain. —  In  some  cases  that  died  after  two  or  three  days  of 
persistent  cyanosis  and  unconsciousness  the  white  matter  of  the 
brain  was  found  to  be  peppered  with  tiny  petechial  hemorrhages. 
These  are  the  direct  outcome  of  the  asphyxial  state  and  have 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


14! 


little  clinical  significance.  Large  cerebral  hemorrhages  have, 
however,  been  noted,  occurring  on  the  first  or  second  day  in  cases 
of  plethoric  cyanosis. 

Vascular  obstruction. —  Occasionally  the  peripheral  arteries  to 
the  limbs  may  become  occluded.  As  a  rule,  the  threatening 
gangrene  clears  up  in  these  cases. 

Stomach. —  Petechial  hemorrhages  and  a  slight  superficial  ulcera¬ 
tion  are  often  seen  post  mortem  over  the  inner  surface  of  the 
cardiac  fundus  The  stomach  has  occasionally  at  autopsy  been 
found  to  be  full  of  blood  from  an  extension  of  this  ulcerative 
process,  but  only  in  one  case  has  death  occurred  with  liematemesis. 
The  gastric  derangements,  which  generally  persist  during  con¬ 
valescence,  are  not  of  a  type  suggesting  the  result  of  an  ulcerative 
process. 

Kidney. —  Clinical  nephritis  is  rare,  and  its  occurrence  may  in 
each  case  have  been  a  chance  coincidence. 

TREATMENT. 

General  Considerations: 

Rest  is  the  most  important  point  of  all  in  the  general  treat¬ 
ment  of  gas  casualties. 

219.  Men,  and  especially  officers,  should  be  warned  beforehand 
that  if  lightly  gassed  they  must  refrain  from  moving  about  or 
shouting  out  orders.  Physical  strain  after  gassing  may  easily 
involve  the  loss  of  a  life  that  might  otherwise  have  been  restored 
to  the  fighting  line  in  a  short  time.  The  principle  of  attaining 
complete  rest  as  soon  as  possible  underlies  the  detailed  advice 
for  dealing  with  gas  casualties  that  is  given  below,  and  is  the 
reason  for  their  detention  at  the  casualty  clearing  stations.  All 
kit  that  hinders  the  play  of  the  respiratory  muscles,  especially 
belts  and  suspenders,  should  be  undone.  Sleep  brings  improve¬ 
ment,  and  restless  excited  cases  should  be  quieted  by  morphia. 
It  is  important  that  arrangements  should  be  planned  beforehand 
at  each  casualty  clearing  station  so  that  even  a  large  number  of 
gas  casualties  can  be  handled  with  such  discipline  and  control 
as  will  at  once  introduce  a  sense  of  order  and  quietude,  and  by 
separating  those  who  are  more  dangerously  ill  from  the  remainder, 
enable  the  less  severe  cases  to  get  to  sleep  at  once. 

Next  in  importance  to  rest  comes  the  use  of  oxygen,  protection 
from  cold,  special  stimulants  or  drugs,  venesection,  and  methods 
for  removing  serous  exudate  from  the  lungs. 


142 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


Bronchial  spasm  does  not  seem  to  be  a  serious  danger  with  the 
present  form  of  cloud  gas.  Life  or  death  is  decided  by  the 
degree  of  pulmonary  edema  and  asphyxia  with  circulatory  fail¬ 
ure.  The  edema  fluid  tends  to  be  absorbed  quickly,  and  if  the 
patient  can  be  carried  alive  through  the  first  two  days,  he  should 
recover.  Precautions  in  the  meantime  need  to  be  taken  to  lessen 
the  chance  that  secondary  respiratory  infections  may  develop  as 
a  later  complication. 

Oxygen,  if  rightly  administered,  will  generally  lessen  cyanosis, 
and  therefore  improve  the  patient’s  chance  of  life.  But  the  lung 
surface  available  for  absorption  is  so  small  that  the  oxygen  must 
be  given  in  high  concentration.  The  simple  admixture  with  air 
obtained  by  open  flow  from  a  funnel  or  a  tube  placed  in  the 
patient’s  mouth  is  useless,  and  since  it  wastes  valuable  oxygen  it 
should  be  forbidden.  Given  as  the  pure  gas  from  a  bag  with  a 
valved  face  mask,  as  described  in  Treatment  at  Casualty  Clear¬ 
ing  Stations  (see  par.  222),  say  for  3  or  4  minutes  every  quarter 
of  an  hour,  an  oxygen  cylinder  of  20  feet  capacity  will  last 
about  4  hours.  By  this  means  life  can  undoubtedly  be  saved  in 
some  of  the  apparently  desperate  cases.  The  administration 
must  be  continued  night  and  day,  so  as  to  hold  cyanosis  in  check. 
The  consumption  of  oxygen  by  this  method  is  so  large  that  all 
care  must  be  taken  to  economize  cylinders,  the  provision  of 
which,  under  active  service  conditions  is  necessarily  limited  by 
considerations  of  transport.  Many  casualties  are  so  severely 
poisoned  that  their  condition  is  seen  in  the  first  few  hours  to  be 
hopeless.  Some  selection  of  the  cases  for  oxygen  treatment 
must  therefore  generally  be  made,  and  it  is  especially  with  the 
intermediate  group  who  are  surviving  into  the  second  day  that 
oxygen  has  the  best  chance  of  acting  with  ultimate  advantage. 
It  is  quite  unnecessary  to  use  it  for  relatively  mild  cases.  Deep 
cyanosis,  whether  of  the  congestive  or  pallid  type,  is  the  indica¬ 
tion  of  need,  and  the  lividity  can  always  almost  be  lessened  if 
the  face-mask  is  properly  applied. 

The  subcutaneous  injection  of  oxygen  is  useless. 

Warmth  is  needed  in  many  of  the  severe  cases,  especially  at 
the  outset  when  they  are  collapsed  and  their  skin  is  cold.  To 
attain  this,  it  may  even  be  necessary  to  transfer  them  tempo¬ 
rarily  indoors.  Otherwise  the  fullest  supply  of  fresh  air  is 
needed  for  all  cases.  When  outside,  care  should  be  taken  to 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT.  143 

protect  against  chill,  which  might  lead  to  a  subsequent  broncho¬ 
pneumonia. 

Special  stimulants  and  drugs. —  Ammonia  is  very  useful  as  an 
inhalation  from  the  small  ampoules  supplied.  It  is  necessary  to 
warn  orderlies  that  these  ampoules  are  to  be  held  at  some  dis¬ 
tance  from  the  patient’s  mouth,  and  that  their  use  should  not  be 
persisted  in  where  they  seem  to  aggravate  the  difficulty  of 
breathing.  The  action  is  more  as  as  stimulant  than  in  chemical 
antagonism  to  the  chlorine. 

Brandy  and  water  is  a  good  restorative  when  given  in  small 
sips.  Cases  .of  gray  collapse  with  a  rapid  pulse  of  poor  tension 
do  not  react  well  to  stimulant  drugs  and  are  almost  hopeless 
when  they  develop  this  condition  in  the  first  day.  Pituitrin, 
0.5  cc.  hypodermically  every  three  hours,  gives  some  aid  to  a 
failing  heart.  The  benefit  of  digitalin  and  strychnine  is  more 
doubtful. 

Venesection  gives  real  relief  to  men  with  deep  cyanosis  and  a 
full  pulse.  The  headache  is  lessened,  the  breathing  feels  easier, 
and  the  patient  may  soon  fall  into  a  sleep  that  conserves  his 
strength.  It  appears  to  be  harmful  in  collapsed  cases  with  a 
poor  pulse,  and  it  should  not  be  postponed  until  the  patient 
passes  into  this  dangerous  state. 

Methods  for  aiding  the  discharge  of  exudate  from  the  lungs. — 

(1)  Emetics  have  been  given  at  various  times  in  the  hope  that 
the  lungs  would  be  partly  emptied  in  the  act  of  vomiting.  The 
effort  is  very  exhausting  and  the  results  do  not  justify  the  treat¬ 
ment  in  late  cases.  But  in  the  first  few  hours,  before  the  patient 
is  gravely  ill,  vomiting  is  probably  good  and  retching  may  be 
encouraged  by  simple  means.  Later,  it  is  better  to  try  and  allay 
gastric  pain  or  retching  by  the  use  of  drinks  with  sodium  bi¬ 
carbonate.  Beef  tea  is  not  to  be  recommended  in  view  of  the 
possibility  of  slight  gastric  ulceration. 

(2)  In  the  first  day,  if  there  is  much  fluid  expectoration,  good 
results  may  be  obtained  by  postural  treatment,  such  as  by  turn¬ 
ing  the  head  of  the  patient  sideways  and  then  raising  the  foot 
end  of  the  stretcher  two  or  three  feet,  or  even  higher,  for  a  few 
minutes  at  a  time. 

(3)  Schafer’s  artificial  respiration  has  occasionally  proved  of 
service  in  expelling  fluid  from  the  chest,  but  it  is  necessary  to 
watch  its  effect  on  the  patient  very  closely  lest  disaster  ensue. 


144 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


(4)  Expectorants  in  large  doses,  such  as  10  or  15  grains  of 
ammonium  carbonate,  are  probably  harmful  at  the  beginning, 
for  they  will  cause  nausea  and  an  irritant  cough  which  will 
interfere  with  sleep  and  may  augment  the  tendency  to  disruptive 
emphysema  of  the  lungs.  Patients  who  are  not  seriously  ill 
should  be  given  a  simple  mixture  such  as  amm.  carb.  gr.  v  and 
vin.  ipecac,  m.  x.  6  hourly  on  the  'second  day.  Later  treatment 
might  comprise  ordinary  medicinal  measures  such  as  potassium 
iodide,  atropine,  steam  tents  with  tincture  benzoin  compound,  etc., 
for  symptoms  as  they  arise. 

% 

PART  4.—  REGULATIONS  FOR  TREATMENT  OF  GASSED 

CASES. 

Treatment  by  Regimental  Medical  Officers  : 

220.  1.  All  ranks  should  be  warned  of  the  need  for  seeing  that 
the  gas  masks  of  wounded  men  are  kept  properly  in  position  until 
the  danger  from  gas  has  passed  away,  and  also  of  the  importance 
to  lightly  gassed  cases  of  remaining  absolutely  quiet. 

While  the  gas  cloud  is  concentrated,  all  ranks  should  refrain 
as  far  as  possible  from  movement,  so  that  they  may  breathe 
slowly  and  keep  the  current  of  air  through  the  gas  mask  at  a 
low  velocity. 

2.  After  the  order  has  been  given  for  removal  of  masks,  am¬ 
monia  inhalations  from  the  capsules  should  be  given  by  stretcher 
bearers  to  all  gassed  men  with  difficulty  in  breathing,  but  their 
use  should  not  be  persisted  with  in  those  special  cases  where  the 
ammonia  seems  to  increase  the  discomfort  of  the  patient. 

3.  Clothing  over  the  chest  should  be  loosened,  the  suspenders 
and  belt  undone  in  front  and  equipment  removed. 

4.  Vomiting  at  first  is  beneficial  and  it  may  be  encouraged  by 
drinks  of  tepid  water,  either  alone  or  with  salt  (1  tablespoonful 
to  half  a  pint  or  more  of  water),  and  the  back  of  the  throat 
should  be  tickled  shortly  after  the  drink  has  been  taken. 

5.  Experience  has  shown  that  atropine  is  of  no  use  in  the  early 
stages  of  gas  poisoning. 

6.  All  gas  casualties  must  be  evacuated  as  soon  as  possible  to 
dressing  stations.  All  except  the  lightest  cases  should,  as  far  as 
possible,  be  evacuated  lying  down,  and  walking  cases  should  be 
warned  to  seek  assistance  in  going  back  along  the  trenches  so  as 
to  avoid  physical  effort  as  much  as  possible.  Special  attention 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


145 


should  be  paid  to  men  who  complain  of  feeling  collapsed,  though 
they  show  no  manifest  features  of  having  been  gassed,  since 
these  may  develop  later  the  serious  form  of  delayed  poisoning. 

Rest  is  the  one  point  that  is  essential  from  beginning  to  end  of 
the  treatment  of  gas  casualties.  Gassed  men  should  not  be  al¬ 
lowed  to  carry  their  own  equipment  back  from  the  trenches.  It 
is  suggested  that  arrangements  for  the  disposal  of  kit  should  be 
made  regimentally  in  advance. 

Treatment  in  Dressing  Stations  : 

221.  1.  Casualties  should  be  kept  lying  down  in  the  open  air,  so 
far  as  weather  permits.  -  Suspenders  must  be  undone  and  clothing 
over  the  chest  loosened,  so  as  to  give  freedom  for  breathing. 

2.  Ammonia  inhalations  should  be  given.  Experience  has 
shown  that  atropine  injections  are  of  very  doubtful  value. 

3.  If  the  patient  still  feels  inclined  to  vomit,  he  may  be  given 
tepid  drafts  of  salt  and  water,  and  the  back  of  the  throat 
tickled. 

4.  Restless  cases,  if  fully  conscious,  may  be  given  one  quietening 
injection  of  one-fourth  grain  morphia.  The  time  of  injection  and 
the  dose  must  be  recorded  on  the  diagnosis  tag. 

5.  Severe  cases  fall  into  two  groups  :  The  “collapsed”  with  a 
poof  pulse  and  leaden  gray  tint  and  the  “cyanotic”  or  “blue” 
with  a  full  pulse  and  general  asphyxial  lividity. 

6.  Collapsed  cases  may  be  retained  at  the  dressing  station  for  a 
short  time,  and  their  state  of  collapse  combated  by  stimulants 
such  as  external  warmth,  hot  drinks,  brandy,  pituitary  extract,  or 
other  drugs.  If  there  is  much  fluid  flowing  up  through  the  mouth, 
the  feet  of  the  stretcher  should  be  raised  to  a  height  of  about  4 
feet  and  the  patient’s  head  turned  slightly  sideways.  This  posi¬ 
tion  should  not  be  maintained  for  more  than  a  few  minutes  and 
it  should  be  abandoned  if  it  aggravates  the  cyanosis  or  fails  to 
increase  the  discharge  of  fluid. 

7.  Blue  cases  of  severe  cyanosis  require  continuous  treatment 
with  oxygen  in  high  concentration.  They  should  therefore  be 
evacuated  as  soon  as  possible  to  the  nearest  casualty  clearing 
station  or  field  hospital,  unless  special  apparatus  for  their  treat¬ 
ment.  is  available  at  the  dressing  station.  If  there  is  unavoidable 
delay  before  transference  the  treatment  recommended  at  the 
casualty  clearing  station,  paragraphs  7  and  8,  should  be  tried. 


146 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


8.  All  cases  except  the  mildest  should  be  evacuated  lying  down, 
and  the  severe  cases,  with  the  exception  of  those  of  grave  col¬ 
lapse,  should  be  transferred  first  of  all. 

Treatment  at  Field  Hospitals  and  Casualty  Clearing  Stations  : 

222.  1.  Serious  cases  should  at  once  be  separated  from  the 
slight,  so  that  the  latter  may  lose  their  anxiety  and  get  to 
sleep. 

2.  Ammonia  inhalations  may  be  useful  on  admission  at  any 
time  up  to  24  hours  after  exposure  to  gas. 

3.  Open  air  treatment  is  best,  if  the  weather  permits,  and 
complete  rest  is  essential  for  the  first  two  days.  The  clothing 
and  suspenders  should  be  loosened,  and  the  worst  cases  should 
be  undressed  and  put  to  bed  wherever  this  is  possible. 

No  patient  should  be  allowed  to  leave  his  bed  or  stretcher  for 
any  purpose  whatsoever. 

4.  Restless  cases,  if  not  unconscious,  may  be  quieted  by  one 
injection  of  one-quarter  grain  morphia. 

5.  Collapsed  cases  should  be  treated  with  warmth  and  stimu¬ 
lants  as  described  in  dressing  station  6,  and  oxygen  should  be 
used  in  addition.  Atropine  is  harmful  to  these  patients. 

6.  Attention  should  be  paid  to  the  posture  of  unconscious  cases, 
both  to  aid  discharge  of  any  fluid  that  may  be  escaping  from,  the 
lungs  and  to  avoid  injury  to  nerves  or  skin  by  pressure,  e.  g., 
from  a  clasp  knife  or  the  edge  of  the  stretcher,  if  the  patient  is 
not  undressed  and  in  bed. 

7.  Cyanosis  can  be  lessened  by  the  administration  of  oxygen 
in  high  concentration.  For  this  purpose  the  flow  from  a  simple 
funnel  or  a  tube  in  the  mouth  in  inadequate  and  wasteful  of  the 
gas.  An  apparatus  should  be  used  with  a  valved  face  mask,  such 
as  that  for  nitrous  oxide  anesthesia,  the  valves  being  so  set  that 
the  patient  breathes  in  oxygen  from  the  bag  and  breathes  out  into 
the  open  air.  The  treatment  should  be  continued  hour  after  hour 
with  brief  intervals  until  the  edema  of  the  lungs  clears  up.  Cases 
may  recover  after  being  cyanosed  and  unconscious  for  two  days. 

8.  Venesection,  performed  slowly,  to  the  amount  of  15  or  20 
ounces  may  be  of  use  to  “blue”  cases  if  practiced  early  and  before 
the  pulse  begins  to  fall. 

9.  Expectorants. — Drugs  such  as  ammonium  carbonate  and 
vinum  ipecac  are  recommended  for  use  in  expectorant  doses  from 
the  second  day  onward. 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT.  147 

10.  The  diet  should  be  light  and  simple.  Measures  should  be 
taken  to  open  the  bowels. 

11.  As  far  as  circumstances  permit,  no  case  should  be  evacu¬ 
ated  to  the  line  of  communication  until  definite  cyanosis  or 
serious  symptoms  have  disappeared.  A  note  should  be  sent  down 
with  those  cases  which  have  passed  through  a  condition  of 
gravity,  so  as  to  guide  the  medical  officer  on  the  line  of  commu¬ 
nication  as  to  the  future  treatment  of  the  case. 

Lines  of  Communication  : 

223.  The  methods  of  treatment  advised  at  casualty  clearing 
stations  are  applicable  for  use  in  hospitals  on  the  line  of  com¬ 
munication  when  circumstances  necessitate  the  early  evacuation 
of  cases. 

A  very  large  proportion  of  the  casualties  sent  to  the  base  as 
“gassed  cases”  are  likely  to  become  fit  for  duty  after  a  short 
rest.  Wastage  by  transfer  to  home  territory  is  to  be  avoided, 
and  medical  officers  should  exercise  the  greatest  care  in  selecting 
cases  for  evacuation  to  home  hospitals. 

As  a  rule,  only  cases  in  which  there  was  a  clear  history  of 
grave  cyanosis  or  collapse,  or  in  which  secondary  infections  of 
the  respiratory  tract  have  developed,  should  be  sent  farther 
than  the  base.  It  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  all  casualties 
which  had  been  detained  in  a  casualty  clearing  station  for  five 
days  were  of  a  serious  nature,  whatever  their  condition  on  ar¬ 
rival  at  the  base  hospital. 

Rest  stations. —  Rest,  with  the  possibility  of  lying  down  on  a 
bed  at  any  time  of  the  day,  must  be  provided  during  the  first 
two  or  three  weeks  for  all  cases  except  the  very  mildest.  Ar¬ 
rangements  should,  when  possible,  be  made  at  the  base  to  give 
accommodation,  if  the  patients  cannot  be  retained  in  the  main 
hospitals,  for  an  easy  life  of  this  nature  which  is  not  permitted 
in  the  usual  routine  of  convalescent  depots. 

Convalescent  depots. —  Gas  casualties,  who  show  neurasthenic 
or  cardio-vascular  weakness  after  three  weeks’  treatment  at  the 
depot,  should  be  transferred  to  home  hospitals. 

PART  5.— INDEX  TO  DRUGS  WHICH  HAVE  AT  VARIOUS 

TIMES  BEEN  USED. 

224.  Ammonia. —  The  benefit  of  occasional  inhalations  of  am¬ 
monia  during  the  first  day  is  universally  admitted.  Spiritus 


148 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


arnmon.  aromat.  in  4  cc.  doses  with  plenty  of  water  is  useful  as 
a  direct  stimulant,  but  it  does  not  ease  breathing  in  the  same  way 
as  does  vapor. 

Ammonium  carbonate. —  In  large  doses  of  gr.  xv  as  an  emetic 
has  proved  harmful  and  never  done  good  in  the  early  stages.  As 
an  expectorant  it  should  only  be  used  in  small  doses  of  gr.  v. 

Apomorphine. —  In  hypodermic  doses  of  gr.  1-10  has  been 
recommended  as  an  emetic.  The  vomiting  often  fails,  the  drug  is  de¬ 
pressant,  and  its  use  had  never  proved  to  be  of  the  least  value. 

Atropine  has  been  supposed  to  be  useful  in  the  early  stages  of 
poisoning,  both  to  relieve  bronchial  spasm  and  to  check  the  secre¬ 
tion  of  edema  fluid.  The  drug  has  been  extensively  tried,  both 
in  the  French  and  British  medical  services,  and  no  conclusive  evi¬ 
dence  of  such  benefit  has  been  found.  On  the  other  hand,  atropine 
does  tend  to  accelerate  the  heart  beat,  and  a  result  of  this  na¬ 
ture  is  an  actual  disadvantage  to  an  asphyxiated  patient.  Its 
use  in  the  first  two  or  three  days  should  therefore  be  discontinued. 

Camphor  in  conjunction  with  ether  forms  a  useful  stimulant  in 
cases  of  collapse.  The  Japanese  in  the  Russian  War  used  as  a 
general  stimulant  a  hypodermic  injection  of  10  to  15  minims 
of  camphor  1  part,  ether  4-5  parts,  olive  oil  4  parts.  It  is 
possible  that  this  might  also  be  of  value  in  cases  of  gas  poisoning 
associated  with  collapse. 

Digitalin,  grain  1  /100,  hypodermically,  has  so  slight  an  action 
that  it  probably  is  not  worth  using  in  the  two  or  three  critical 
days  of  acute  pulmonary  edema. 

Ipecacuanha  has  been  recommended  as  having  a  specific  action 
in  promoting  the  absorption  of  edema  fluid.  For  this  purpose, 
20  to  30  minims  of  the  Vinum  have  been  given  two-hourly. 
Nausea  and  emesis  are  not  aimed  at.  The  evidence  as  to  its  ac¬ 
tion  in  this  sense  is  inconclusive,  though  it  is  useful  in  smaller 
doses  as  an  ordinary  expectorant.  The  drug  should  not  be  given 
as  an  emetic,  because  it  produces  depression. 

The  extractive,  Emetine,  has  been  tried  hypodermically  in  re¬ 
peated  doses  of  gr.  1-3  and  without  any  apparent  benefit  what¬ 
soever. 

Morphia  is  most  useful  as  a  sedative  and  may  be  given  even  to 
deeply  cyanosed  patients  for  extreme  restlessness.  The  dose 
should  not  be  large,  gr.  4,  followed,  if  need  be  by  gr.  1-6,  or  15 
to  20  minims  of  tinct.  opii. 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


149 


Phenacetin  and  Aspirin  have  been  given  to  relieve  the  headache 
caused  by  mine-gas  poisoning,  and  they  were  found  to  produce  a 
dangerous  state  of  collapse  in  these  patients.  It  is  therefore  in¬ 
advisable  to  use  them  for  the  headache  that  follows  the  inha¬ 
lation  of  cloud  gas. 

Pituitrin  0  5  cc.  into*  the  muscles  or  hypodermically  increases 
oardio-vascular  tone  for  a  short  time  and  gives  aid  to  a  failing  heart. 
If  a  second  injection  is  given  15  to  20  minutes  after  the  first,  it 
may  cause  the  pressure  to  fall.  An  interval  of  three  hours  should 
be  observed  if  the  dose  is  repeated. 

Sodium  lactate  taken  by  the  mouth  every  four  hours  in  2 
drachm  doses  of  a  50  per  cent  solution  has  been  employed  with  a 
view  to  augmenting  the  alkaline  bases  of  the  blood,  fixing  some 
of  the  excess  of  carbon  dioxide,  and  thereby  tending  to  lessen 
the  rate  of  respiration.  The  main  features  of  gas  poisoning  are 
not  influenced  by  this  method  of  treatment. 

Sparteine  has  erroneously  been  supposed  to  be  a  cardiac  tonic 
and  a  useful  drug  in  the  place  of  digitalin.  Actually  it  is  a 
poison  which  slows  and  weakens  the  heartbeat. 

Strychnine,  one-thirtieth  grain,  may  be  employed  in  the  early 
stages  of  pallid  collapse. 

PART  6.—  NITROUS  FUMES,  LACHRYMATORS,  HYDRO¬ 
CYANIC  ACID,  CARBON  MONOXIDE. 

Nitrous  Fumes: 

225.  Though  no  cases  of  nitrous  fumes  poisoning  have  hitherto 
been  recorded,  the  possibility  of  their  occurrence  owing  to  ex¬ 
posure  to  the  fumes  of  burning  explosives  should  not  be  lost 
sight  of. 

The  great  danger  of  nitrous  fumes  arises  from  the  fact  that  in 
the  concentrations  usually  met  with  there  is  comparatively  little 
irritation  of  the  eyes  or  upper  respiratory  passages,  and  a  man 
working  in  such  an  atmosphere  will  not  recognize  its  deadly 
nature.  Air  which  contains  enough  nitrous  fumes  to  cause  feel¬ 
ings  of  irritation  in  the  nose  or  air  passages  must  be  regarded  as 
very  dangerous.  Nitrous  fumes"  are  very  soluble  in  water,  and 
the  gas  may  be  readily  removed  from  the  atmosphere  by  means 
of  a  water  spray,  whilst  a  few  folds  of  a  handkerchief  or  a  towel 
wetted  with  water  and  tied  over  the  nose  and  mouth*  will  give 
efficient  protection  in  the  absence  of  a  mask.  The  possibility  of 


150  GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 

the  simultaneous  occurrence  of  carbon  monoxide  in  atmospheres 
containing  nitrous  fumes  must  be  remembered. 

Owing  to  the  delay  in  the  onset  of  serious  symptoms,  it  is  es¬ 
sential  that  any  man  who  is  suspected  of  having  been  exposed 
to  nitrous  fumes  should  be  sent  to  hospital  with  as  little  delay 
as  possible  and  detained  there  for  24  hours  for  observation. 

Pathological  changes. —  The  pathological  changes  found  post¬ 
mortem  in  a  fatal  case  of  nitrous-fumes  poisoning  are  identical 
with  those  described  above  as  characteristic  of  chlorine  poisoning. 
If  the  concentration  of  nitrous  fumes  to  which  the  case  has  been 
exposed  is  very  high,  the  blood  may  be  somewhat  chocolate 
colored  owing  to  the  formation  of  methaemoglobin. 

Symptoms. —  If  the  gas  is  in  very  great  concentration,  rapid 
fatal  asphyxiation  takes  place,  but  in  the  concentrations  that 
are  usually  encountered,  the  characteristics  which  distinguish  this 
from  chlorine  poisoning  are  the  slightness  of  the  initial  symptoms 
due  to  irritation  of  the  upper  respiratory  passages  and  delay  in 
the  onset  of  acute  pulmonary  edema. 

The  typical  sequence  of  events  is  — 

( 1 )  Slight  irritation  of  the  nose  and  throat,  feeling  of  con¬ 
striction  of  the  chest,  headache  and  slight  smarting  of  the  eyes 
and  coughing  wdiile  actually  exposed  to  the  fumes. 

(2)  On  leaving  the  poisonous  atmosphere  a  latent  period  dur¬ 
ing  which  the  case  may,  and  usually  does,  feel  quite  well  and 
has  no  hesitation  in  taking  a  meal. 

(3)  The  sudden  onset  after  four  to  eight  hours  of  acute  symp¬ 
toms.  These  commence  with  marked  and  increasing  distress  in 
breathing,  coughing,  and  often  severe  pain  in  the  chest.  The 
cough  is  at  first  dry,  and  auscultation  may  reveal  no  moist 
sounds.  This  condition  is  speedily  followed  by  the  urgent  signs 
of  acute  pulmonary  edema  which  have  been  already  detailed  un¬ 
der  chlorine  poisoning  (par.  214),  and  death  may  ensue  in  a  few 
hours. 

Treatment. — When  once  pulmonary  edema  has  developed,  the 
treatment  should  follow  the  lines  already  laid  down  for  chlorine 
poisoning  (par.  219).  The  experience  of  medical  officers  attached 
to  mines  on  the  Rand,  where  nitrous  fumes  are  frequently  met 
with  during  blasting  operations,  points  to  the  value  of  inducing 
emesis  as  soon  after  exposure  to  the  fumes  as  possible,  followed 
by  a  dose  of  such  a  stimulant  as  spir.  ammon.  aromat.  A  case 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


151 


of  nitrous -fumes  poisoning  should  be  under  medical  observation 
at  the  time  when  acute  pulmonary  edema  is  likely  to  develop  and 
a  venesection  of  from  15  to  20  ounces  should  be  made  as  soon  as 
there  is  the  slightest  sign  of  its  onset.  Venesection  must  not  be 
delayed  until  the  patient’s  condition  is  grave  and  the  stage  of 
lividity  has  been  reached,  or  it  will  be  useless. 

Lachrymators  : 

226.  Hitherto,  no  serious  cases  of  poisoning  have  occurred  as 
the  result  of  exposure  to  the  effects  of  shells  containing  sub¬ 
stances  employed  merely  on  account  of  their  lachrymatory  prop¬ 
erties. 

The  immediate  effect  of  a  trace  of  the  vapor  of  such  a  lachry- 
mator  as  benzyl  bromide  in  the  air  is  to  cause  profuse  watering 
of  the  eyes,  accompanied  by  smarting.  If  the  concentration  is 
somewhat  greater,  the  smarting  and  pain  in  the  eyes  may  be¬ 
come  intolerable,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  keep  the  eyes  open. 
The  smarting  and  watering  of  the  eyes  will  be  quite  sufficient  to 
put  a  man  completely  out  of  action,  because  he  is  incapable  of 
seeing,  but  protection  of  the  eyes  is  easily  obtained  by  the  use  of 
goggles. 

With  increasing  concentrations  of  the  vapor,  other  effects  show 
themselves.  The  vapor  is  irritant  to  the  lungs  and  upper  respir¬ 
atory  passages  and  this  leads  to  a  burning  sensation  in  the 
throat  and  coughing.  Nausea  is  often  present  and  not  infre¬ 
quently  leads  to  vomiting,  accompanied,  it  may  be,  by  pain  in 
the  epigastrium.  If  it  is  impossible  to  withdraw  from  exposure 
to  the  fumes,  slight  confusion  of  mind  and  torpor  may  show 
themselves. 

Under  ordinary  conditions  the  symptoms  do  not  develop  further, 
and  though  the  case  may  become  somewhat  collapsed  as  a  result 
of  the  vomiting  and  general  discomfort,  this  is  only  temporary, 
and  within  an  hour  or  two  after  getting  into  air  free  from  the 
lachrymator  there  may  be  very  little  amiss  with  the  man.  The 
nausea  and  irritation  of  the  throat  soon  pass  off,  though  the  eyes 
may  remain  sore  for  some  little  time,  and  even  after  the  lapse  of 
12  hours  redness  of  the  eyelids  and  slight  injection  of  the  con¬ 
junctiva  may  still  be  evident.  There  are  no  subsequent  toxic 
effects  and  the  case  will  be  fit  for  duty  as  soon  as  the  primary 
effects  have  passed  off. 


152 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  some  of  the  acute  lung  irritants 
are  also  extremely  powerful  lachrymators,  and  that  such  sub¬ 
stances  may  be  used  with  a  view  to  securing  a  double  effect,  viz., 
immediate  blinding  and  simultaneous  intense  toxic  effect  on  the 
lungs.  In  order  to  secure  such  an  effect  it  is  essential  that  the 
substance  used  shall  be  gaseous  or  shall  vaporize  with  sufficient 
rapidity  to  attain  a  high  enough  concentration  in  the  air  to  produce 
these  intense  toxic  effects.  Lachrymators  such  as  benzyl  bromide, 
which  are  liquid  at  ordinary  temperatures,  vaporize  too  slowly  to 
produce  such  a  concentration,  and  the  symptoms  caused  by  a 
lachrymator  of  this  type,  therefore,  very  rarely  attain  a  degree 
of  severity  greater  than  those  described  above  in  detail. 

The  smell  of  benzyl  bromide  when  in  great  dilution  suggests 
the  flavor  of  mustard  and  cress.  Lachrymators  as  a  rule  have 
aromatic,  pungent  odors. 

Hydrocyanic  Acid  : 

227.  When  in  sufficient  concentration  this  gas  acts  as  a  very 
rapid  and  sometimes  almost  instantaneous  poison,  affecting  di¬ 
rectly  the  central  nervous  system. 

Symptoms. — These  follow  one  another  in  rapid  sequence  :  Gid¬ 
diness,  confusion,  headache,  indistinct  sight,  palpitation  and  pain 
in  the  chest  and  over  the  heart.  Labored  respiration.  Uncon¬ 
sciousness,  convulsions,  failure  of  the  respiration  and  finally  of 
the  heart.  In  large  doses,  immediate  unconsciousness,  dilatation  of 
the  pupils,  a  few  gasping  respirations,  and  death  with  or  with¬ 
out  convulsions. 

The  gas  paralyzes  the  respiratory  center  very  quickly,  and 
with  small  fatal  percentages  the  heart  may  continue  to  beat  for 
a  brief  time  after  the  respiration  has  ceased.  With  larger  con¬ 
centrations  the  heart  may  be  stopped  almost  at  once  by  the 
direct  action  of  the  poison. 

When  death  is  caused  by  inhalation  of  hydrocyanic-acid  gas, 
it  is  unlikely  that  the  smell  of  the  gas  will  be  detected  at  autopsy, 
as  may  be  the  case  when  poisoning  is  due  to  the  ingestion  by  the 
mouth  of  a  large  dose  of  prussic  acid. 

Treatment. — Immediate  treatment  is  the  only  measure  of  any 
avail  if  a  man  falls  unconscious  from  hydrocyanic-acid  poisoning. 
The  case  must  be  at  once  dragged  into  fresh  air,  and  if  the  re¬ 
spiration  has  stopped,  or  is  very  weak  and  gasping,  artificial 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


153 


respiration  must  be  instantly  applied  by  Schafer’s  method.  It  is 
possible  by  this  means  to  resusticate  a  case,  and  if  this  is  so 
recovery  will  be  perfect.  Cold  water  may  be  splashed  on  the  face 
and  chest  and  friction  applied  to  the  limbs,  but  time  should  not 
be  wasted  on  these  measures  before  commencing  artificial  respira¬ 
tion.  The  same  immediate  treatment  holds  good  for  any  other 
gas  that  causes  rapid  unconsciousness  from  its  effects  on  the 
central  nervous  system. 

Carbon  Monoxide  : 

228.  The  great  danger  of  carbon  monoxide  arises  from  the  fact 
that  the  gas  is  colorless,  odorless,  and  nonirritant,  and  that  the 
onset  of  symptoms  is  so  insidious  that  very  often  the  first  warn¬ 
ing  that  a  man  may  receive  is  failure  in  the  power  of  his  limbs 
which  will  prevent  him  from  retreating  into  safety.  Neither  the 
box  respirator  nor  other  masks  give  protection  against  carbon 
monoxide;  protection  can  only  be  attained  by  the  use  of  special 
oxygen  breathing  apparatus. 

Pathological  changes. — At  the  autopsy,  the  blood  may  be  red  in 
color  instead  of  dark  if  there  is  a  considerable  degree  of  satura¬ 
tion  of  the  hemoglobin  with  carbon  monoxide.  If  the  case  has 
continued  to  breathe  for  some  time  after  reaching  an  atmosphere 
free  from  carbon  monoxide,  this  gas  will  have  been  partly  or  en¬ 
tirely  displaced  from  the  hemoglobin  and  the  blood  after  death 
will  have  its  normal  color. 

The  simplest  method  of  detecting  the  presence  of  carbon  mo¬ 
noxide  in  blood  is  to  compare  the  color  of  a  dilute  solution  of  the 
suspected  blood  with  a  similar  solution  of  normal  blood.  Take  a 
drop  or  two  of  blood  from  the  finger  of  a  normal  person  and 
dilute  it  in  a  test  tube  very  considerably  with  water  (a  one -half 
of  1  per  cent  solution  is  a  convenient  strength),  so  that  when 
examined  by  transmitted  daylight  the  color  of  this  solution  is  a 
reddish -yellow.  Then  take  a  drop  or  two  of  the  suspected  blood 
and  dilute  it  similarly  with  water,  so  that  the  depth  of  color  of 
the  solution  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  solution  of  normal  blood 
when  both  are  viewed  by  transmitted  light.  On  examining  the 
quality  of  the  color  it  will  be  found  that  the  solution  made  with 
the  suspected  blood,  if  it  contains  carbon  monoxide  hemoglobin, 
is  definitely  pinker  than  that  made  with  the  normal  blood,  though 
it  will  not  have  the  full  pink  tint  of  the  same  normal  blood  solu- 


154 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


tion  if  the  latter  be  shaken  with  coal  gas  so  as  to  saturate  it 
quite  completely  with  carbon  monoxide. 

The  lungs  show  no  abnormal  changes  in  cases  of  rapid  death. 
Small  punctate  hemorrhages  may  be  found  in  the  white  matter 
of  the  brain  and  sometimes  ecchymoses  in  the  meninges  if  the 
case  has  been  exposed  to  a  concentration  of  carbon  monoxide  suf¬ 
ficient  to  cause  prolonged  unconsciousness. 

Symptoms. —  Except  with  very  massive  doses,  when  loss  of  con¬ 
sciousness  is  very  rapid,  the  symptoms  develop  very  gradually, 
as  the  gas  is  only  absorbed  slowly.  If  a  man  is  at  rest  in  a  con¬ 
centration  of  the  gas  of  1  part  in  1,000  it  will  take  about  two 
hours  before  definite  giddiness  appears  and  he  will  not  be  defi¬ 
nitely  disabled  until  the  lapse  of  two  and  one-half  hours.  The 
rate  of  absorption  of  the  gas  is  much  quickened  when  the  breath¬ 
ing  is  deepened  during  muscular  exercise  and  the  exercise  also 
leads  to  great  accentuation  of  the  symptoms.  With  a  concen¬ 
tration  of  2  parts  in  1,000  a  man  will  be  seriously  affected  in 
half  an  hour  if  he  is  performing  a  moderate  amount  of  muscular 
work,  and  this  concentration  may  prove  fatal  with  prolonged  ex¬ 
posure. 

Small  animals  are  far  more  quickly  affected  by  carbon  mon¬ 
oxide  than  man  is,  owing  to  the  natural  great  ventilation  of 
their  lungs  and  the  rapidity  of  their  circulation.  A  mouse  or  a 
canary  will  show  definite  symptoms  of  carbon  monoxide  poisoning 
in  a  tenth  of  the  time  that  a  man  will.  If  small  animals  are 
used  to  give  an  index  of  the  presence  of  carbon  monoxide  in  a 
suspected  atmosphere,  it  must  be  remembered  that  though  they 
show  symptoms  long  before  a  man  feels  any  effects,  the  man 
will  in  the  end  be  reduced  to  the  same  condition  as  the  animal, 
and  he  ought  therefore  to  leave  the  dangerous  atmosphere  di¬ 
rectly  the  animal  shows  signs  of  being  affected,  unless  he  is 
protected  by  special  apparatus. 

The  first  sign  that  tells  a  man  that  something  is  amiss  is  very 
frequently  a  feeling  of  loss  of  power  in  the  limbs.  Giddiness, 
slight  confusion  of  mind,  and  breathlessness  and  palpitation  on 
the  least  exertion  also  show  themselves.  The  confusion  of  mind 
and  loss  of  power  in  the  legs  frequently  preclude  a  man  from 
withdrawing  from  danger,  even  though  he  is  dimly  aware  that 
safety  is  only  a  few  yards  distant.  The  failure  of  power  in  the 
limbs  and  mental  confusion  rapidly  increase  and  the  man  may 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


155 


appear  drunk,  shouting  incoherently,  laughing,  swearing,  or  pray¬ 
ing.  Apathy  and  complete  helplessness  supervene,  and  failure  of 
the  intellectual  powers  gradually  passes  into  complete  uncon¬ 
sciousness,  which  may  finally  terminate  in  a  painless  death. 

The  symptoms  may  remain  stationary  at  any  stage,  since  the 
degree  of  saturation  of  the  hemoglobin  with  carbon  monoxide 
reaches  a  final  end  point  which  is  determined  by  the  relative 
concentrations  of  the  carbon  monoxide  and  the  oxygen  which  are 
simultaneously  trying  to  combine  with  the  hemoglobin. 

Even  in  cases  of  mild  gassing  with  carbon  monoxide,  a  severe 
headache  accompanied  by  nausea  is  very  likely  to  develop. 

Treatment. — -  The  symptoms  detailed  above  are  due  to  the 
gradual  diminution  of  the  oxygen-carrying  power  of  the  blood 
and  the  exposure  of  all  the  organs  of  the  body  to  increasing  want 
of  oxygen.  It  is  clear  that  any  increase  in  the  oxygen  demands 
of  the  body  is  to  be  avoided,  and  any  man,  therefore,  who  shows 
definite  signs  of  gassing  should  be  carried  to  a  place  of  safety. 
If  he  attempts  to  walk  himself  he  is  quite  likely  to  fall  down 
unconscious.  When  a  moderately  gassed  case  reaches  fresh  air  he 
sometimes  falls  unconscious,  while  other  cases  may  commence  to 
shout  and  struggle,  in  which  case  their  movements  need  to  be 
controlled. 

Any  case  showing  definite  symptoms  should  be  removed  as  soon 
as  possible  to  some  place  of  safety  where  he  can  remain  at  rest 
for  an  hour  or  two  before  evacuation.  Rest  is  essential. 

As  carbon  monoxide  hemoglobin  is  a  dissociable  compound,  the 
carbon  monoxide  is  gradually  driven  out  of  its  combination  with 
hemoglobin  by  the  oxygen  of  the  air  as  soon  as  an  atmosphere 
free  from  carbon  monoxide  is  reached.  In  fresh  air  it  will  take 
an  hour  or  two  before  the  blood  is  entirely  freed  from  carbon 
monoxide,  but  the  process  can  be  rendered  five  times  as  rapid  by 
giving  the  patient  pure  oxygen  to  breathe.  It  is  important  there¬ 
fore  to  begin  the  administration  of  oxygen  by  some  efficient 
method  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  case  has  been  removed  from 
the  poisonous  atmosphere.  A  suitable  method  has  been  described 
under  chlorine  poisoning  (par.  214)  and  the  oxygen  apparatus  that 
is  kept  at  mine  rescue  stations  is  also  most  efficient.  Adminis¬ 
tration  of  oxygen  should  be  kept  up  as  continuously  as  possible 
for  half  an  hour  to  an  hour,  depending  on  the  severity  of  the 
symptoms.  It  should  be  remembered  that  if  a  case  can  be  kept 


156 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


at  rest  lor  half  an  hour  and  oxygen  administered  immediately 
after  being  removed  from  the  poisonous  atmosphere,  he  will  be 
in  far  better  condition  to  travel  than  if  he  has  to  be  removed  to 
a  more  distant  point.  If  the  breathing  is  very  shallow,  adminis¬ 
tration  of  oxygen  may  be  combined  with  artificial  respiration. 

Collapse  should  be  combated  by  external  warmth  and  by  fric¬ 
tion  of  the  limbs. 

In  chlorine  poisoning  the  pulmonary  edema  and  damage  to  the 
lungs  and  the  consequent  interference  with  the  gaseous  exchange 
taking  place  between  the  blood  and  the  air  in  the  lungs  per¬ 
sist  for  some  time  and  may  necessitate  the  administration  of 
oxygen  for  several  days.  In  carbon  monoxide  poisoning  the 
structure  of  the  lungs  is  not  interfered  with  and  oxygen  is  ad¬ 
ministered  with  the  deliberate  intention  of  accelerating  the  dis¬ 
charge  of  carbon  monoxide  from  the  blood.  When  once  thi§  has 
been  accomplished,  i.  e.,  after  half  an  hour’s  or  an  hour’s  admin¬ 
istration,  there  is  no  need  to  continue  the  oxygen  administra¬ 
tion,  as  the  oxygen-carrying  power  of  the  blood  has  now  become 
normal  again.  Any  symptoms  that  persist  are  due  to  effects 
that  were  produced  while  the  blood  was  charged  with  carbon  mon¬ 
oxide  and  are  unlikely  to  be  influenced  by  oxygen  administration 
when  once  the  carbon  monoxide  has  been  got  rid  of.  Further 
oxygen  administration  is  therefore  required  only  if  cyanosis  be¬ 
gins  to  develop  subsequently  from  secondary  cardiac  or  respi¬ 
ratory  failure. 

Cases  of  carbon  monoxide  poisoning  have  been  known  to  re¬ 
cover,  even  when  they  have  remained  unconscious  for  so  long  as 
48  hours  after  removal  from  the  poisonous  atmosphere.  In 
cases  that  have  been  severely  gassed  the  possibility  of  subse¬ 
quent  cardiac  dilatation  must  not  be  lost  sight  of,  and  cases  of 
severe  gassing  should  not  be  returned  to  duty  until  confidence  is 
felt  that  the  circulation  has  recovered  from  the  strain.  As  a 
result  of  damage  to  the  nervous  system  while  the  blood  was 
charged  with  carbon  monoxide,  paralysis  of  single  muscles  or  a 
groups  of  muscles,  or  different  forms  of  mental  disturbance  are 
sometimes  found  as  sequelae. 

Need  for  Further  Investigation: 

229.  Knowledge  on  the  various  points  discussed  in  this  pamph¬ 
let  is  still  far  from  being  stable.  Medical  officers  are  there- 


GAS  POISONING  AND  ITS  TREATMENT. 


157 


fore  asked  to  assist  by  making  further  observations  and  at  once 
writing  down  notes  on  any  of  the  following  particulars,  about 
which  chance  may  enable  them  to  supply  useful  information. 
Such  notes  should  be  forwarded  to  the  division  surgeon. 

1.  Smells  of  the  gas.  This  may  be  musty,  pungent,  aromatic 
like  lilac,  garlic,  mustard  and  cress,  bitter  almonds,  and  so  on. 

2.  The  symptoms  in  gassed  men,  especially  those  of  onset,  when 
they  are  in  any  way  remarkable  or  differ  from  those  described  for 
cloud  gas  in  this  pamphlet.  All  points  not  observed  by  the 
medical  officer  himself  should  be  subjected  to  careful  cross-ex¬ 
amination. 

3.  The  findings  at  autopsy  of  very  early  cases  of  gas  poison - 
.  ing  with  an  account  of  the  manner  of  death. 

4.  The  value  of  various  methods  of  treatment  of  severely  gassed 
cases,  with  control  observations  where  possible. 


INDEX. 


A. 

Action :  Paragraph . 

after  an  enemy  gas  attack .  10 

after  enemy  gas  attack .  184 

after  gas  attack .  18 

during  enemy  gas  attack .  0 

during  enemy  gas  attack .  183 

during  a  gas  shell  bombardment .  185 

during  gas  attack .  89 

during  our  gas  attacks .  102 

during  gas  attacks .  10 

to  be  taken  in  billets  and  back  areas .  88 

to  be  taken  in  trenches  on  gas  alarm .  87 

to  be  taken  on  sounding  of  gas  alarm .  182 

subsequent  to  gas  attack .  104 

Adjustment: 

of  horse  respirator .  177 

of  mask  .  32 

Aid,  first  .  12 

Aiming  points  and  aiming  posts .  157 

Alarm : 

gas .  8 

gas .  31 

gas,  devices .  138 

Alert : 

position  of  horse  respirator .  170 

position  for  box  respirators .  6 

position  of  respirators  and  helmets .  77 

Ammonia : 

for  gassed  persons . 224 

capsules,  in  gas  alert . 181 

inhalations .  221 

inhalations .  222 

capsules . 7 

capsules .  83 


160 


INDEX. 


Paragraph. 

Ammonium  carbonate  for  gassed  persons .  224 

Ammunition: 

and  arms,  cleaning .  112 

and  guns,  protection  and  cleaning  of . 156 

effect  of  gas  on . 18 

and  small  arms,  protection  of . . . •  69 

Anti-dimming  composition  for  box  respirator .  123 

Anti-gas: 

fan  for  clearing  trenches .  140 

fans .  139 

personal  equipment,  inspection  of .  170 

drills  and  practice  should  be  continuous .  169 

measures . 2 

goggles,  inspection  of . « .  172 

goggles .  131 

Apomorphine  for  gassed  persons .  224 

Apparatus,  gas  sampling .  146 

Appliance,  when  and  where  carried . 62 

Armament,  nature  of .  19 

Arms: 

and  ammunition,  cleaning . 112 

cleaning  of  . .  .  10 

cleaning  of  after  gas  attack .  184 

Artillery: 

•action  during  enemy  gas  attack .  183 

fire  as  anti-gas  measure .  159 

gas  protection  .  151 

protection  of .  72 

Asphyxiants .  19 

Atrophine  for  gassed  persons . .  224 

Attack: 

action  during  an  enemy  gas .  9 

flame  throwing  .  202 

forms  of  gas .  25 

gas .  33 

gas  cloud . 2 


FI  otc 


/VOTE.  In  deployment 

/--  3"-  I1*  Cr>  first  hoe 
2f.  on  tecind  line 

1 '  on  t  Icrie  ant  t nternitdiate  Line 


PUte  No  26. 


>  WAVE 


< 


< 


T* la-ft  IS 


PcS - 


MAP  OF 

C  COMPANY  SECTOR 

r'tu.CzzknAry  Tr<x  i  n  In*  Camp,  /Vcw  York. 

October  !8,  1917. 

ScaLc-  7 ci  z  /mile. 

_ / _ 

QQo 


Series  A. 


TABLE  7  —  RIFLE  COMPANY,  INFANTRY  REGIMENT. 


Corrected  to 

Maximum  Strength  October  18,  1917 


| 

1 

2 

3 

4  5  6 

1 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

j 

Units 

1 

02 

%- 

0? 

Eh 

2 

c3 

O 

One  Platoon 

02 

°o 

C 

r/2  O 

T-H  CO 

02  cS 

o  ^ 

r5 

Ph 

Eh 

3 

o 

1 

co 

a 

o 

o 

3 

S3 _ 

a'a 
a  o 
o  53 
03 

,  KH 

-h* 

o 

Eh 

Remarks 

1 

cr 

hH 

HH 

a 

o 

c 

S  ! 

To 

S  o 

42 
g 
a  3 
ocq 

•  pH 

MH 

02  w 

rH 

1 

Eh 

<D 

•  rH 

o  ^ 
c3 

P 

c  2 
•20 
c  o 

cgS 

, — 1  — i 

*W»  v _ / 

p 

<N 

'H 

0) 

S  2 

o  a> 

33  « 

V  H 

03  H 
CO'-' 

0 

CO 

'3' 

03 

g  s 

C3 

ca 

•  rH 

a* 
.g.S 
■g  3 
,s  2 

o 

t-  H 

e*H  H 

a 

o 

o 

<3 

s 

o3 

•  O 

2 

Captain . 

i 

1 

(a)  Senior  first  lieutenant,  second  in 

command. 

(b)  1st  and  4th  Platoons  commanded 

by  first  lieutenants; 

2d  and  3d  Platoons  commanded 
by  second  lieutenants; 
Additional  officers  in  Regular 
Army  from  Reserve  Corps  or 
National  Army. 

(c)  Assistant  to  platoon  commander. 

(d)  To  be  distributed  as  needed. 

(e)  For  replacement. 

(J)  Automatic-rifle  gunners. 

Cf7)  Company  Clerk. 

(i)  Company  agents  and  signalmen. 

(k)  From  supply  company,  not  in¬ 
cluded  in  total. 

(L)  Includes  8  rifles  for  automatic 
gunners  not  acting  as  such. 

(m)  4  automatic  rifle  teams,  each  con¬ 
sisting  of  1  gunner  and  2  car¬ 
riers;  1  corporal  for  each  two 
guns. 

(n)  3  bomber  squads,  each  consisting 

of:  1  leader,  1  thrower,  1  car¬ 
rier,  and  1  scout,  (3  pistols  for 
throwers) . 

(o)  6  rifle  grenadiers  and  3  carriers. 

(p)  Armed  with  pistol  only. 

(r)  Armed  with  rifle  only. 

(pr)  Armed  with  pistol  and  rifle. 

( s )  Runners. 

3 

First  Lieutenants . 

al 

hi 

j 

2 

3 

4 

Second  Lieutenants . 

2 

2 

5 

Total  Commissioned . 

2 

1 

1 

_ ] 

4 

6 

6 

First  Sergeant . 

1 V 

1 

T 

i 

] 

7 

Mess  Sergeant . 

1  r 

- — 

1 

8 

Supply  Sergeant . 

1  r 

1 

9 

Sergeants . 

clpr 

lr 

1  pr 

3 

12 

12 

!  io 

ii 

Corporals . 

qlr 

2pr 

2  pr 

2r 

2  pr 

8 

32 

33 

Cooks . . . 

4  r 

4 

12 

Mechanics . 

4  r 

L 

4 

13 

Wagoners . t . 

kb 

. 

14 

Buglers . 

2  v 

1 

2 

15 

Privates,  1st  Class . 

Hr 

lr  4  3 pr 

lr 

6r 

f4p 

15 

60 

64 

16 

Privates . 

s4r 

6  r 

6  r 

8r 

8r 

32 

128 

128 

17 

Total  Enlisted . 

18 

5 

12 

9 

17 

15 

58 

232 

250 

18 

19 

20 

21 

Aggregate . 

20 

6 

12 

9 

17 

15 

58 

236 

256 

Mules,  draft . . . .  •  •  • 

ATS 

Carts,  ration,  2-mule . ■ . 

kl 

Carts,  water,  2-mule . 

kl 

| 

1 

J _ 

22 

23 

Kitchens,  rolling,  4-mule . 

kl 

Wagons,  combat,  4-mule . - . 

!  *i 

r 

— 

|  24 

25 

l  26 

l  27 

Lis 

So 

Wagons,  ration  and  baggage,  4-mule . 

:  AT 

Bicycles . 

2 

o 

Grenade-dischargers,  rifle . 

eO 

6 

6 

24 

30 

Knives,  trench . 

d40 

40 

Pistols . 

5 

2 

5 

2 

ry 

l 

16 

64 

69 

Rifles . 

23  L 

5 

12 

9 

17 

11 

54 

216 

239 

Rifles,  automatic . 

1 

4 

4 

16 

16 

A  «  »!**  •  •* 


r.iri  '  VUUJ/ 


. 


' ' 


INDEX. 


161 


Attack  (Continued) : 

gas,  method  of  making . 

gas  shell  . 

Barrage  : 

smoke . 

Beaufort : 

scale  . 

scale  . 

Benzyl : 

bromide . 

Billets  : 

action  to  be  taken  in . 

Blue  : 

cases,  gassed  persons . 

Bombs  : 

and  shells,  gas  in  offensive . 

precaution  against  . 

Box  Respirators  : 

inspection  of  . 

and  helmets,  drills  with . 

and  helmets,  inspection  of  during  gas  alert 

method  of  use . 

anti-dimming  composition  . 

construction  of  . 

description  of . 

directions  for  use  of . 

drills  with . 

fitting  of  . 

inspection  of . 

inspection  of . 

length  of  time  to  be  worn . . 

local  repairs  . 

record  of  use  of . 

replacement  of . . . .  -  . 

Breathing  : 

drills  in  . 

Bringing  : 

up  supports  . 

6 


Paragraph. 

.  200 

.  2 


198 


188 

18 


206 


88 


221 


210 

99 


22 

166 

181 

118 

123 

5 

116 

21 

20 

117 

6 

122 

120 

124 
121 
121 


1 


98 


INDEX. 


162 

Burning  :  Paragraph. 

buildings .  211 

of  nitro  explosives .  211 

Bulbs  : 

vacuum  for  gas  samples .  191 

Calculation  : 

of  time  taken  for  gas  to  move  a  given  distance .  190 

Camphor  : 

for  gassed  persons .  224 

Capsules  : 

ammonia .  83 

ammonia .  7 

Carbon  : 

monoxide .  228 

monoxide . 208 

monoxide,  poisoning,  treatment  of .  228 

monoxide,  poisoned  by .  12 

monoxide  poisoning,  symptoms  of .  228 

Carrier  Pigeons  : 

protection  of  . 165 

Careful  : 

training,  need  for .  16 

Carrying  : 

of  horse  respirator .  175 

Cavalry  : 

adjustment  of  respirators .  150 

gas  protection  .  148 

gas  protection  when  near  trenches .  149 

Chlorine  .  205 

effect  of .  214 

effect  on  respirative  organs . 42 

heavier  than  air.  .  .  . .  16 

Circumstances  : 

under  which  gas  poisoning  may  be  met  with  in  warfare  209 
under  which  poisonous  gases  other  than  used  for  of¬ 
fensive  purposes  may  be  encountered  .  211 


INDEX. 


163 


Cleaning  :  Paragraph. 

bright  parts  of  trench  mortars .  114 

of  arms .  10 

of  arms  after  an  enemy  gas  attack .  184 

of  arms  and  ammunition . .  ...  H2 

signal  instruments  after  gas  attack .  164 

Clearing  : 

shelters  with  two  openings .  143 

dug-outs . 18 

dug-outs  and  other  shelters .  106 

of  shelters .  10 

of  shelters  after  an  enemy  gas  attack .  184 

shelters,  with  fan .  142 

trenches  with  fan .  140 

Cloud: 

attack .  40 

gas .  39 

gas  attack .  2 

gas  attacks,  out  of  date .  16 

gas  in  offensive .  210 

gas  of  summer  of  1915 .  213 

gas  of  1916  and  1917 .  215 

Collapsed  cases: 

gassed  persons  .  221 

gassed  persons  .  222 

Collection  of  specimens  after  a  gas  shell  bombardment .  192 

Company: 

gas  non-commissioned  officers .  6 

gas  1ST.  C.  Os.,  duties  and  responsibilities .  186 

gas  1ST.  C.  Os.,  during  gas  alert .  181 

gas  1ST.  C.  Os.,  measures  after  gas  shell  bombardment .  192 

gas  N.  C.  Os.,  whom  to  report  to .  81 

vermorel  sprayers  . . .  145 

Communication,  lines  of .  223 

Course,  six  day,  in  anti-gas  measures .  15 

Crude: 

methods  used  .  16 

protection  against  gas .  16 


INDEX. 


164 

Cylinders:  Paragraph. 

contents  of  .  3 

warning  of  old .  3 

Construction .  18 

and  placing  of  wind  vane .  187 

of  box  respirator .  5 

Convalescent  depots .  223 

D. 

Defensive  measures  against  gas  attacks .  3G 

Description  of  strombos  horn .  134 

Devices  for  gas  alarm .  138 

Diagram  of  box  respirator .  5 

Digitalin  for  gassed  persons. . . .  224 

Directions: 

for  the  use  of  anti-gas  horse  respirators .  173 

for  use  of  box  respirators .  21 

of  wind,  how  observed  and  stated .  18S 

Divisional  gas  officer,  duties  of .  57 

Dog  masks  . 179 

Dressing  stations,  treatment  at .  221 

Drills: 

and  practice  for  anti-gas  should  be  continuous .  169 

for  gas  shells .  1 

Helmet,  P.  H .  128 

in  breathing  .  1 

tube  helmet  .  166 

with  box  respirators .  20 

with  box  respirators  and  helmets .  166 

with  gas  masks .  34 

with  respirators  . 1 

Drugs: 

for  gassed  persons .  219 

used  for  gassed  persons .  224 

Dug-outs: 

and  shelters,  clearing . .  106 

clearing  of  .  18 


INDEX. 


165 


Dug-outs  (Continued)  :  Paragraph. 

gas  proof,  using  of .  65 

protected . 14 

Duties: 

and  responsibilities  of  company  gas  N.  C.  Os .  186 

of  divisional  gas  officer .  57 

organization  of  anti-gas .  53 

within  an  infantry  battalion,  anti-gas .  54 

E. 

Ear  drums,  perforated,  protection  to  use .  119 

Effect: 

of  gas  poisonings  in  1916  and  1917 .  215 

of  chlorine  on  respiratory  organs .  214 

of  gas  on  ammunition .  18 

of  gas  on  equipment .  18 

of  gas  on  rifle .  18 

of  gas  .  27 

Employment,  tactical,  of  gas  in  defense .  199 

Enemy  gas  attack,  action  during .  9 

Equipment  : 

and  weapons,  protection  of .  68 

carried .  58 

effect  of  gas  on .  18 

inspection  of  personal,  anti-gas .  170 

of  men  .  29 

Escaping  : 

from  gas  bombs . 19 

Expectorants  : 

gassed  persons  . . . .  .  222 

Explosions  . «... . . . . .  06 

and  mine  gases . 49 

Explosive  : 

shells . 97 

Eye  : 

irritant  gases  . .  206 

Eye-pieces  : 

Cleaning  of  .  20 


166  INDEX. 

F. 

Fans  :  Paragraph. 

anti-gas .  130 

anti-gas  for  clearing  shelters .  142 

use  for  clearing  trenches .  140 

method  of  clearing  around  a  traverse  with .  141 

Fanning  : 

for  ventilation .  110 

Fire  : 

rain  of  .  190 

ventilation,  material  used .  109 

First  aid  . 12 

to  gassed  men .  19 

First  lecture  : 

on  gas  .  2 

in  anti-ga^s  measures .  16 

Fitting  : 

of  box  respirators .  117 

Flame  : 

throwing  attacks  . - .  202 


Flammenwerfer . 

Form  : 

for  wind  report . 

of  gas  attack . 

Forward  : 

observing  parties,  precautions  taken 

Fourth  lecture  . 

Fumes  : 

from  high-explosive  shells . 

from  the  firing  of  guns . 

nitrous . 


197 

18 

25 


155 

12: 

211 

211 


Gas  : 

alarm 

alarm 

alarms 


G. 


31 

S 

10 


INDEX. 


167 


Gas  (Continued) :  Paragraph. 

alarm,  action  to  be  taken .  182 

alarm  devices .  138 

alarm,  sounding  of .  21 

alarm,  action  to  be  taken  in  trenches .  87 

alarm,  method  of  giving .  85 

alarm,  protected  shelters .  182 

unnecessary  movements  to  cease .  182 

Gas  Alert .  30 

ammonia  capsules  .  181 

company  gas  non-commissioned  officers..- .  181 

inspection  of  helmets .  129 

inspection  of  respirators  and  helmets .  181 

order  for  .  75 

P.H.  helmet .  127 

position  when  only  P.H.  helmet  is  used .  167 

position  of  box  respirators .  181 

sentries .  181 

sleeping .  181 

when  and  by  whom  ordered,  and  taken  off .  180 

Gas  Appliances  : 

training  with  .  168 

officers’  responsibility  .  51 

Gas  attack .  33 

action  after  .  18 

action  during  our .  102 

action  during  an  enemy .  9 

action  subsequent  to .  104 

during  action  . j .  89 

method  of  making .  200 

movement  of  men  in  trenches  during .  105 

tactical  measures  during .  158 

Gas  : 

and  oil  projectors .  201 

and  smoke  used  together .  96 

attacks,  origin  of .  35 

bombs  and  grenades,  storing  of .  103 

bombs,  escaping  from .  19 

clouds .  39 

cloud,  last  great  attack . . .  16 


INDEX. 


168 

Gas  (Continued) :  Paragraph. 

cloud,  poisoning  from .  212 

cloud,  speed  of .  43 

cylinders,  handling  of .  100 

cylinders,  position  of  in  trenches .  101 

defense,  organization  of .  50 

duties,  organization  of .  53 

defense  for  special  arm3 .  147 

duties  within  an  infantry  battalion .  54 

effects  of . 27 

first  used  by  Germans .  16 

in  defense,  employment,  tactical .  199 

kinds  of  .  26 

masks,  types  of .  28 

mine  .  211 

mixture  of  . 41 

mustard .  19 

poisoning  and  its  treatment .  203 

poisoning,  how  met  with  in  warfare .  209 

poisoning,  treatment  for .  219 

poisoning,  symptoms  at  onset .  217 

poisoning,  symptoms  on  development .  217 

precautions .  194 

projectile .  44 

proof  dug-outs,  use  of .  65 

protection  for  artillery .  151 

samples,  instructions  for  taking .  191 

sampling  apparatus  .  146 

shells  and  gas  bombs  in  offensive .  210 

shell  attack .  2 

shell  attacks  . 16 

shell  bombardment,  action  during .  1S5 

shells,  kind  used  by  enemy .  45 

shells  now  used .  16 

testing  tubes  .  191 

which  act  on  the  eye .  206 

which  act  by  interfering  with  respiratory  properties  of 

the  blood .  208 

which  act  on  the  nervous  system .  207 

use  of  for  offensive  purposes .  210 


INDEX. 


169 


Gas  (Continued) :  Paragraph. 

mine  and  explosion .  49 

poisonous,  how  grouped .  204 

Gassed  men,  first  aid  to .  19 

Goggles: 

anti-gas .  131 

anti-gas,  inspection  of .  172 

rubber  sponge  . 61 

Grenades,  and  gas  bombs,  storing  of .  103 

Guns  and  ammunition,  protection  and  cleaning .  156 

H. 

Hand  and  rifle  grenades: 

measures  to  be  taken  after  exposure  to  gas .  113 

protection  of  .  70 

Handling  gas  cylinders .  100 

Helmets .  60 

and  box  respirators,  drills  with .  166 

alert  position  of .  77 

gas  alert  position  when  helmet  only  is  used .  167 

inspection  during  gas  alert .  129 

inspection  of  .  76 

P.H .  125 

P.H.  drill  .  128 

P.H.,  during  gas  alert .  127 

P.H.,  inspection  of .  171 

P.H.,  method  of  use .  126 

P.H.,  special  orders  for  men  using .  181 

replacement  and  repair .  130 

special  orders  for  using .  78 

tube,  drill  .  166 

Help  each  other  in  gas  attack . ' .  91 

Homs: 

strombos .  133 

strombos,  description  .  134 

strombos,  how  to  sound .  136 

strombos,  method  of  use .  135 

strombos,  replacement  and  repair  of .  137 


170 


INDEX. 


Paragraph. 

Horse  respirators  .  132 

adjustment  of  .  177 

alert  position  of .  176 

how  carried  .  175 

method  of  use .  174 

replacement  of  .  178 

use  of .  173 

Hydrocyanic  acid  .  227 

acid .  207 

poisoning,  symptoms  of .  227 

I. 

Inhalations  : 

ammonia .  222 

ammonia .  221 

Inspection  : 

helmets,  during  gas  alert .  129 

of  anti-gas  goggles .  172 

of  box  respirators .  6 

of  box  respirators . 22 

of  box  respirators .  122 

of  box  respirators  and  helmets  during  gas  alert .  181 

of  gas  equipment .  29 

of  gas  respirators .  76 

of  helmets . 76 

of  personal  anti-gas  equipment .  179 

of  P.H.  helmets .  171 

of  small  box  respirator .  1 

Interference  : 

with  circulation  when  person  is  gassed .  214 

Instruction  : 

and  organization . ' .  24 

for  taking  gas  samples .  191 

Instruments  : 

telephone,  protection  against  gas .  163 

Investigation  ; 

need  for  further .  229 


INDEX.  j  71 

Ipecacuanha :  Paragraph . 

for  gassed  persons .  224 

Issue  : 

of  respirators  .  1 

K. 

Kidneys  : 

in  gas  poisoning .  218 

Kinds  : 

of  gas .  20 

L. 

Lachrymators  . 206 

lachrymators .  226 

Lachrymatory  . 19 

gases,  protection  against .  66 

or  tear  shells .  46 

Lecture  : 

fourth .  12 

in  gas  alert .  1 

in  gas  shells .  1 

on  gas,  first .  2 

on  gas  for  officers .  23 

second . 6 

third . 11 

Length  of  time  for  wearing  box  respirator .  120 

Light  : 

trench  mortars  and  ammunition . .' .  71 

Liquid  fire  : 

origin,  how  used,  and  construction  of .  195 

Lines  : 

of  communication .  223 

Local  repairs  on  box  respirators .  124 

M. 

Marks  : 

on  shells  .  19 


INDEX. 


172 


Mask  :  Paragraph. 

adjustment .  32 

dog .  179 

Material  : 

used  in  tire  ventilation .  109 


Measures  : 

anti-gas .  2 

against  gas  attacks .  36 

tactical,  during  action  of  an  enemy  gas  attack .  9 

tactical  during  gas  attack .  158 

to  be  taken  on  hand  and  rifle  grenades  that  have  been 

exposed  to  gas .  113 

summary  of  protective .  52 

Mechanism  of  strombos  horn .  16 


Medical  officers: 

measures  to  take  in  gas  offensive . .  210 

treatment  to  give  gassed  persons .  220 

Method: 

of  adjusting  respirator  for  cavalry .  150 

of  giving  gas  alarm .  85 

of  making  gas  attack .  200 

of  use  of  box  respirator .  118 

of  use  of  P.H.  Helmet .  126 

of  using  horse  respirator .  174 

of  using  respirators  by  artillery .  151 

crude  used  .  16 

for  aiding  the  discharge  from  lungs  from  gassed  persons.  .  219 

of  getting  gas  out  of  trench .  17 

of  protections  of  shelters .  63 

Mine: 

and  explosion  gases .  49 

gases .  211 

Mixture  of  gas .  41 

Morphia  for  gassed  persons .  224 

Mortars,  trench,  cleaning  bright  parts .  114 

Movements: 

after  an  enemy  gas  attack .  184 

during  action  of  an  enemy  gas  attack .  9 


INDEX. 


173 


Movements  (Continued) :  Paragraph. 

during  clearing  of  shelters .  10 

during  enemy  gas  attack .  183 

of  men  in  trenches  during  gas  attack .  105 

unnecessary  to  cease  at  gas  alarm .  182 

unnecessary,  to  cease  during  gas  alarm .  8 

Mustard  gas  .  19 

N. 

Nature  of  armament .  19 

Natural  ventilation  .  107 

Necessary  training .  56 

Need  for  further  investigation .  229 

Nervous  system,  gases  which  act  on .  207 

Nitrous: 

fumes .  225 

nitric  oxide  and  nitrogen  peroxide .  205 

poisoning,  treatment  .  225 

Non-commissioned  officers: 

company  gas  .  6 

and  officers  to  see  that  orders  are  carried  out .  82 

special  duties  of,  gas .  55 

O. 

Observation: 

wind .  74 

wind .  16 

Observing  and  stating  of  wind  direction .  188 

Offensive,  use  of  gas  for .  210 

Officers: 

and  N.C.Os.  to  see  that  orders  are  carried  out .  82 

lectures  on  gas  for .  23 

responsibility  in  gas  appliances .  51 

Oil  and  gas  projectors .  201 

Open-air  treatment,  gassed  persons .  222 

Order  for  gas  alert .  75 


Ordering  of  gas  alert,  when  and  by  whom  given  and  taken  off  180 


174 


INDEX. 


Paragraph. 

Orders,  standing  for  company  gas  N.C.Os .  12 

Organization: 

and  instruction  .  24 

of  anti-gas  duties . . 53 

of  gas  defense .  50 

Origin  of  gas  attacks .  35 

Oxygen,  in  treating  gassed  persons . 219 


P. 

P.H.  Helmet  .  125 

during  gas  alert .  127 

inspection  of  .  171 

method  of  use .  126 

special  orders  for  men  using .  181 

drill .  128 

Paralysants .  19 

Pathological  changes  from  carbon  monoxide  poisoning .  228 

Pathology  of  gas  poisoning  and  its  treatment .  203 

Perforated  ear  drums,  protection  to  use .  119 

Personal  anti-gas  equipment,  inspection  of .  170 

Phenacetin  : 

for  gassed  persons . 224 

Phosgene  .  205 

effect  on  respirative  organs .  42 

heavier  than  air .  16 

Pigeons  : 

carrier,  protection  of . 165 

Pituitrin  : 

for  gassed  persons .  224 

Placing  : 

and  construction  of  wind  vane .  187 

Poison  : 

gases,  protection  against .  37 

shells  .  47 


INDEX. 


175 


Poisoning  :  Paragraph. 

by  carbon  monoxide .  12 

by  gas  cloud .  212 

carbon  monoxide,  symptoms  of .  228 

carbon  monoxide,  treatment  of .  228» 

gas,  treatment  for .  219 

Poisonous  gases: 

circumstances  under  which  they  may  be  encountered....  211 

how  grouped  .  204 

protection  against  .  4 

Position  : 

alert,  for  box  respirators .  6 

gassed  persons  .  222 

of  gas  cylinders  in  trenches .  101 

Portmortem  : 

findings  .  216 

findings  when  person  is  gassed .  214 

Practice  : 

A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  H, — drills  with  box  respirators  and 

helmets . 166  A 

and  drills  for  anti-gas  should  be  continuous .  169 

Precautions  : 

against  bombs  .  99 

during  gas  alert .  76 

gas  . 194 

Preparation  : 


for  subsequent  attack .  10 

Preservation  : 

of  guns  and  ammunition .  156 

Projectiles  : 

gas  . 44 

Projectors  : 

gas  and  oil  .  201 

Protected  : 

dug-outs  . . 14 

shelters,  measures  taken  on  sounding  gas  alarm .  182 


INDEX. 


176 

Protecting  :  Paragraph, 

troops  against  gas .  38 

Protection  : 

and  cleaning  of  guns  and  ammunition .  156 

against  gas  and  explosions  for  tunneling  companies ....  161 

against  lachrymatory  gases .  66 

against  liquid  fire .  195 

against  poison  gases .  37 

against  poisonous  gases .  4 

against  poisonous  gases .  59 

crude  against  gas .  16 

for  perforated  ear  drums .  119 

for  telephone  instruments  against  gas .  163 

of  artillery  .  72 

of  carrier  pigeons . 165 

of  hand  and  rifle  grenades . 70 

of  shelters . 63 

of  shelters  .  13 

of  signal  equipment .  73 

of  small  arms  and  small  arms  ammunition .  69 

of  weapons  and  equipments .  68 

Protective  : 

measures,  summary  of . 52. 

R. 

Rain  : 

of  fire  .  196 

Rapid  : 

fire  .  93 

Rarities  : 

in  cases  of  gas  poisoning .  218 

Record  : 

of  use  of  box  respirator .  121 

Regulations  : 

for  treatment  of  gassed  persons .  220 

Removal : 

of  gas  alert .  84 

of  respirators  after  action  by  enemy  gas  attack .  10 

of  respirators  after  enemy  gas  attack .  184 


INDEX. 


177 


Repairs  :  Paragraph. 

and  replacement  of  helmets .  130 

and  replacement  of  strombos  horn .  137 

Replacement  : 

and  repair  of  helmets .  130 

and  repair  of  strombos  horn .  137 

of  box  respirators . 121 

of  horse  respirators .  178 

Report  : 

wind,  type  of .  189 

samples  and  specimens,  after  gas  attack .  193 

wind  .  6 

Respirator: 

adjustment  by  cavalry .  150 

box,  length  of  time  to  be  worn .  120 

box,  method  of  use .  118 

horse,  adjustment  of .  177 

horse,  alert  position  of .  176 

horse,  how  carried .  175 

horse,  method  of  use . 174 

alert  position  of .  77 

and  helmets,  inspection  of  during  gas  alert .  181 

box  and  helmet  drills  with .  166 

box,  record  of  use .  121 

box,  auto-dimming  composition .  123 

box,  description  of .  116 

box,  inspection  of .  122 

box,  local  repairs .  124 

box,  fitting  of .  117 

box,  inspection  of .  6 

box,  replacement  of .  121 

horse .  132 

horse,  replacement  of .  178 

horse,  use  of .  173 

how  used  by  artillery .  151 

inspection  of  .  76 

issue  of  .  1 

position  in  gas  alert .  181 

removal  after  enemy  gas  attack .  184 

removal  of  during  action  after  an  enemy  gas  attack .  10 


INDEX. 


178 

Respiratory:  Paragraph. 

and  blood,  gases  which  act  on .  208 

tract .  214 

Responsibility: 

of  artillery  during  gas  attack .  160 

of  officers  in  gas  appliance .  51 

Rest  stations  . .  223 

Restless  cases: 

gassed  persons  .  221 

gassed  persons  .  222 

Retiring  before  a  gas  attack .  16 

Rifle: 

and  hand  grenades,  protection  of .  70 

effect  of  gas  on . 18 

Rubber  sponge  goggles .  61 

S. 

S.O.S.: 

barrage .  94 

when  used . 183 

Samples,  specimens,  and  reports  to  be  made  after  gas  attacks  193 

Sampling,  gas  apparatus .  146 

Scale: 

Beaufort .  188 

Beaufort .  18 

Schedule,  six-day  course  in  anti-gas  measures .  15 

Second: 

lecture .  6 

lecture . 18 

Sentries . 79 

to  give  gas  alarm .  86 

during  gas  alert .  181 

posts  of  . 6 

Serious  cases,  gassed  persons .  222 

Shell  holes,  treatment  of . . .  115 


INDEX. 


179 


Shells:  Paragraph. 

and  bombs,  gas  in  offensive .  210 

gas,  kind  used  by  enemy .  45 

marks  on .  19 

Shelters: 

and  dug-outs,  clearing .  106 

clearing  after  an  enemy  gas  attack .  184 

clearing  of  .  10 

clearing  with,  fan .  142 

protected,  measures  taken  on  sounding  of  gas  alarm .  182 

protection  of  .  13 

which  should  be  protected .  13 

which  should  be  protected .  67 

with  two  openings,  clearing .  143 

Signal : 

equipment,  protection  of .  73 

service  and  telephone  operators,  protection  against  gas.  .  .  162 

Six-day  course  in  anti-gas  measures .  15 

Sleeping .  80 

during  gas  alert .  181 

when  attack  is  probable .  6 

Small  arms  and  small  arms  ammunition,  protection  of .  69 

Small  Box  Respirator,  inspection  of .  1 

Smoke  .  .  . .  48 

barrage  .  198 

and  gas  used  together . 95 

bombs,  use  of .  198 

Sodium  : 

lactate  for,  gassed  persons . 224 

Sounding  : 

of  the  gas  alarm .  21 

of  strombos  horn .  136 

Sparteine  : 

for  gassed  persons .  224 

Special : 

arms,  gas  defense .  147 

duties  of  gas  non-commissioned  officers .  55 


INDEX. 


180 


Special  (Continued):  Paragraph. 

orders  for  using  helmet .  78 

stimulants  and  drugs,  in  treating  gassed  persons .  219 

Specimens  : 

collection  of  after  gas  shell  bombardment .  192 

samples  and  reports,  after  gas  attack .  193 

Speed  :  :  T* 

of  gas  cloud .  43 

Spraying  : 

shelters  .  64 


Sprayers  : 

vermorel . 

vermorel,  company  . 

vermorel,  when  used . 

Standing  : 

orders  for  company  gas  N.C.Os 
Stations  : 

dressing,  treatment  at . 

rest  . 

Steps  : 


to  be  taken  when  wind  is  dangerous . 2 

Stimulants  : 

for  gassed  persons .  219 

Stomach  : 

in  gas  poisoning .  218 

Storing  : 

of  gas  bombs  and  grenades .  103 

Strombos  : 

horns  .  133 

horn,  description  .  134 

horn,  how  to  sound .  136 

horn,  mechanism  of .  16 

horn,  method  of  use .  135 

horns,  replacement  and  repair  of .  137 

Strychnine  : 

for  gassed  persons .  224 


111 

145 

144 

12 

221 

223 


INDEX. 


181 


Subsequent  :  Paragraph, 

attack,  preparation  for  after  an  enemy  gas  attack .  184 

Summary  : 

of  protective  measures .  52 

Supports  : 

bringing  up  .  98 

Symptoms  : 

as  gas  poisoning  progresses .  217 

at  onset  of  gas  poisoning .  217 

of  carbon  monoxide  poisoning .  228 

of  hydrocyanic  acid  poisoning .  227 

of  nitrous  poisoning.  . .  225 

on  development  of  gas  poisoning .  217 

T. 

Tactical  : 

employment  of  gas  in  defense .  199 

measures  .  92 

measures,  during  action  of  an  enemy  gas  attack .  9 

measures,  during  enemy  gas  attack .  183 

measures,  during  gas  attacks .  158 

Taking: 

gas  samples,  instructions  for .  191 

Tear  : 

or  lachrymatory  shells .  46 

Telephone  : 

instruments,  cleaning  after  gas  attack .  164 

instruments,  protection  against  gas .  163 

operators,  training  and  method  of  protection  against  gas  162 

Third  : 

lecture  . '. .  11 

lecture,  first  aid  to  gassed  men .  19 

Time  : 

for  gas  to  move  given  distance,  calculation  of .  190 

Toxic  : 

effect  when  person  is  gassed .  214 

Training  : 

careful,  need  for .  16 

necessary  .  56 


INDEX. 


182 

Training  (Continued)  :  Paragraph, 

of  telephone  operators  and  linemen  for  protection  against 

gas .  162 

seven  weeks’  course .  1 

with  gas  appliances .  168 

Traverse  : 

method  of  clearing  with  fan .  141 

Treatment  : 

at  field  hospitals  and  casualty  clearing  stations .  222 

in  dressing  stations .  221 

of  gas  poisoning . 203 

of  hydrocyanic  acid  poisoning .  227 

of  monoxide  poisoning .  228 

of  nitrous  poisoning . 225 

of  shell  holes . . .  115 

for  gas  poisoning . .  219 

for  gassed  persons .  220 

Trench  : 

methods  of  getting  gas  out  of .  17 

clearing  with  fan .  140 

motors  and  their  ammunition . 71 

mortars,  cleaning  bright  parts .  114 

Troops: 

in  support,  where  to  remain  during  gas  attack .  90 

protecting  against  gas .  38 

Tube  helmet  drill . 166A 

Tubes,  gas  testing .  191 

Tunnelling  companies,  protection  against  gas  and  explosions.  .  161 

Type: 

of  wind  report .  6 

of  gases  .  205 

U. 

Use  of: 

gas  for  offensive  purposes .  210 

smoke  bombs  .  198 

strombos  horn,  method  of .  135 

Using  gas-proof  dug-outs .  65 


INDEX. 


183 


V.  Paragraph. 

Vacuum  bulbs,  for  gas  samples .  191 

Vane,  wind,  construction  and  placing  of .  187 

Vascular  obstruction  in  gas  poisoning .  218 

Venesection: 

for  gassed  persons .  219 

for  gassed  persons .  222 

Ventilation: 

by  fanning  .  110 

by  fire  .  108 

fire,  material  used .  109 

natural . 107 

Vermorel  sprayers  .  Ill 

company .  145 

when  used .  144 

Visit  to  chlorine  chamber .  1 

W. 

Warning  of  billets .  211 

Warmth,  in  treating  gassed  persons .  219 

Warning,  of  old  cylinders .  3 

Weapons  and  equipment,  protection  of .  68 

* 

Weather  for  gas  cloud  attack .  199 

Wind: 

direction  of,  how  observed  and  stated .  188 

is  dangerous,  when  and  what  steps  to  be  taken .  2 

observation .  74 

observation .  16 

reports .  6 

report,  form  for .  18 

report,  type  of .  6 

report,  type  of .  189 

vane,  construction  and  placing  of .  187 


THE  ARGUS  COMPANY 
ALBANY,  N.  Y. 


EDWIN  N.  APPLETON 

PUBLISHER  OF 

MILITARY  AND  NAVAL 
BOOKS  EXCLUSIVELY 

Wholesale  and  Retail 


1  Broadway 

N.  Y.  City 

iiiiiiitiiiiiiimimiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiimmimiiiiiiimimmM 

Eastern  Distributor  for 

THE  MOSS  PUBLICATIONS 
THE  WALDRON  BOOKS 
D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  CO. 
THE  HARVEY  PRESS 


ELEMENTS 


OF 

TRENCH  WARFARE 

INCLUDING  THE 

NEW  BAYONET  TRAINING 

Col.  WM.  H.  WALDRON,  U.  S.  A. 

3rd  Edition  -  -  -  -  75  Cents 

NEARLY  100,000  SOLD 


MILITARY  SKETCHING 


AND 

MAP  READING 


Major  JOHN  B.  BARNES,  U.  S.  A. 

"2nd  Edition  -  -  -  75  Cents 

NO  OFFICER  OR  ENLISTED  MAN  SHOULD  BE 
WITHOUT  THESE  TWO  BOOKS. 


Published  and  For  Sale  by 

EDWIN  N.  APPLETON 

1  Broadway,  N.  Y.  City 


JUST  FROM  THE  PRESS 


Camouflage 

Cover  and  Concealment  for  Troops 

Major  WILLIAM  KIRBY 

PRICE  ...  60  CENTS 


iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiimmmiiiiiiiiitiiiitiiiiimimimiimir 


Military  Instructor’s  Manual 

COLE  and  SCHOONMAKER 

2nd  Edition  Revised  -  PRICE,  $2.00 

»  ' 

iiimiiiiiiiiiiigiimiiiimtiiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiMiiiiii 


Manual  of  Gas  in  Attack  and  Defense 

KIRBY  and  SCHOONMAKER 
PRICE,  $1.00 


ON  THE  PRESS 


Bombing  and  Grenades 

KIRBY  and  SCHOONMAKER 


iiiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiimiiiiiiiiiiiiiimiimmiiit 


TANKS 

Artillery  for  an  Infantryman 

Major  OLIVER  SCHOONMAKER 


lllllllllllltllllllllllllllllllllinillllllllllllinilllllllllllllllllM 

Manual  for  Supply  Trains 


Major  OLIVER  SCHOONMAKER 


/ 


I 


k 


V 


